SF 

207 

W4 


GIFT  OF 
Agriculture  Education 


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Cattle  Registry  Associations 

AMERICAN  ABERDEEN-ANGUS  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION, 
Chas.  Gray,  Secretary, 

Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  111. 

AMERICAN  GALLOWAY  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION, 
R.  W.  Brown,  Secretary, 
Carrollton,  Mo. 

AMERICAN  HEREFORD  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION, 
R.  J.  Kinzer,  Secretary, 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 

AMERICAN  POLLED  SHORTHORN  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION, 
J.  W.  Martz,  Secretary, 
Greenville,  Ohio. 

AMERICAN  POLLED  HEREFORD  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION, 
B.  O.  Gammon,  Secretary, 
Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

RED  POLLED  CATTLE  CLUB  OF  AMERICA, 
H.  A.  Martin,  Secretary, 
. .  Riphlantf  Center*  Wis. 

AMERICAN  SHORTHORN  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION, 

;)?i  V*  £fefci4ng;  G^n'eVaJ  Executive, 
.  '  Uhion'Stoclc  Tards,  Chicago,  111. 


PROGRESSIVE  BEEF 
CATTLE  RAISING 


By  EDWARD  N.  WENT  WORTH 

ARMOUR'S  BUREAU  OF  AGRICULTURAL  RESEARCH 
AND  ECONOMICS 

Assisted  by  V.  H.  MUNNECKE 

MANAGER  ARMOUR  AND  COMPANY'S  DRESSED 
BEEF  DEPARTMENT 

and  by  JAMES  BROWN 

IN  CHARGE  OF  CATTLE  BUYING  FOR 
ARMOUR  AND  COMPANY 


ARMOUR'S  BUREAU  OF 
AGRICULTURAL  RESEARCH  AND  ECONOMICS 

R.  J.  H.  DE  LOACH.  Director 

UNION  STOCK  YARDS,  CHICAGO 

1922 

REQ.  NO.  488304 


\A/4 


Copyright,  iqio.  Armour  and  Company 


•   *•*. 


First  Edition,  June,  1920 
Second  Edition.  February,  iq 


Table  of  Contents 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION,  by  James  Brown 6 

THE  FUNCTION  OF  CATTLE q 

Position  of  Cattle  in  the  System  of  Farming q 

Origin  and  Kinds  of  Cattle q 

CATTLE  BREEDS 1 1 

Breed  Qualifications 1 1 

The  Purebred  Animal 1 1 

How  the  Purebred  Developed 12 

The  Value  of  the  Purebred 13 

The  Pedigree 14 

CATTLE  BREEDING 16 

How  Cattle  Are  Improved 16 

Grading  Up  Beef  Cattle 1 6 

The  Relative  Influence  of  Sire  and  Dam 1 8 

The  Proportion  of  Purebred  Cattle 1 8 

Community  Breeding iq 

The  Distribution  of  the  Breeds i  q 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 22 

Foundation  Blood  for  Beef  Production 22 

The  Problems  of  the  Range  Cattle  Breeder 22 

Buying  Feeders 23 

Feeding  Equipment 23 

Some  Cattle  Rations 25 

Growing  the  Calf 27 

The  Advantage  of  Young  Cattle 2q 


Gr"  v 
/ 


PAGE 

Essentials  of  a  Complete  Ration 30 

Silage 31 

Requisites  of  a  Good  Silo 32 

Silo  Capacities 32 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BEEF  HERD 35 

Three  Types  of  Cattle  Farming 35 

The  Maintenance  of  the  Breeding  Herd 36 

The  Pasture 37 

The  Contents  of  the  Hay  Stack 37 

Sanitation  on  the  Farm 39 

Cattle  Diseases 40 

The  Cow  and  Her  Calf 45 

Gestation  Table 46 

THE  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 47 

The  United  States'  Position  in  Beef  Production 47 

The  American  Beef  Export  Trade 47 

The  Change  in  the  Center  of  Beef  Production 48 

The  Consumption  of  Beef 49 

CATTLE  PRICES 52 

The  Relation  of  the  Market  to  the  Feeding  Business .  52 

Why  Markets  Fluctuate 53 

The  Two  Classes  of  Price  Fluctuations 53 

Seasonal  Variations  in  Price 54 

The  Problem  of  Marketing  Beef  in  All  Seasons 55 

Methods  of  Reaching  the  Most  Favorable  Markets . .  56 

The  Effect  of  Supply  and  Demand  on  Hoof  Prices. .  57 

THE  BEEF  CARCASS 59 

The  Relative  Value  of  Carcass  Cuts 59 

Factors  in  Carcass  Values 60 

The  Relation  of  Carcass  Price  to  Hoof  Price. .  61 


PAGE 

MARKET  CLASSES  OF  CATTLE 63 

How  Cattle  Are  Classified 63 

How  Cattle  Are  Graded 64 

Characteristics  of  Different  Grades  and  Classes  of 

Beef  Cattle  and  Butcher  Stock 65 

Grades  and  Classes  of  Feeders  and  Stockers 66 

CATTLE  TYPES 68 

How  Type  Is  Determined 68 

Characteristics  of  the  Standard  Types  of  Beef  Steer . .  69 

Dressing  Percent 69 

MARKETING  CATTLE 71 

Preparations  for  Shipping 71 

Shipping  Counsel 71 

Handling  Cattle  at  the  Market 73 

Slaughtering  Cattle 74 

HIDES  AND  BYPRODUCTS 77 

The  Market  Classification  of  Hides 77 

Byproducts 8 1 

REFERENCES 83 


Introduction 


THE  growing  tendency  among  cattle  feeders  is  to  regard  quality 
and  finish  in  cattle  as  superfluous,  due  to  the  narrowing  margin 
in  price  between  the  poorest  kinds  of  cattle  that  reach  the  market 
and  those  of  best  grade.  The  majority  of  feeders  can  remember  when 
such  animals  as  canner  cows  had  no  value  with  the  packer  or  retail 
butcher,  and  the  increasing  uses  which  have  been  found  for  them, 
sufficient  to  give  quotable  prices  from  day  to  day,  have  been  inter- 
preted by  these  feeders  to  mean  that  quality  no  longer  has  the  value 
it  once  enjoyed.  Nothing  could  be  further  from  the  truth.  Quality 
cattle  will  always  be  properly  appraised,  because  they  produce  the 
class  of. meat  that  is  easiest  to  sell,  requiring  a  minimum  of  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  ultimate  salesman. 

From  year  to  year  the  standards  as  to  market  types  and  classes 
are  changing,  based  on  the  changing  demands  of  the  consumer. 
The  cattle  feeder  usually  learns  of  these  changes  when  he  sells,  and 
occasionally  feels  that  the  market  asks  for  any  kind  of  cattle  other 
than  what  he  brings.  The  chief  difficulty  in  meeting  exactly  the 
market  demands,  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  standards  of  cattle  of  one 
or  two  decades  ago  still  persist  in  the  minds  of  many  feeders  and  are 
perpetuated  by  the  types  of  steers  recognized  by  the  majority  of 
judges  in  the  fat  stock  shows.  Whether  or  not  the  feeder  intends 
to  do  so,  he  carries  in  his  mind  the  standard  of  perfection  established 
by  the  heavy,  richly  finished  bullocks  popular  twenty  years  ago,  and 
he  interprets  the  trimmer  killing  characteristics  which  modern 
cattle  show,  coupled  with  lesser  size,  as  distinct  steps  backward. 

The  chief  factor  in  bringing  about  the  change  in  type  has  been  the 
change  in  retail  demand.  The  public,  while  more  fastidious  as  to 
the  cuts  of  beef  it  consumes,  does  not  eat  as  much  meat  as  it  did 
formerly,  and  will  not  tolerate  the  waste  in  cuts  that  the  rich  steaks 
and  roasts  of  a  half  century  ago  possessed.  The  modifications  in 
market  standards  are  based  on  these  two  simple  facts,  and  the  trade 
must  educate  itself  to  the  idea.  The  retailer  has  been  most  sensitive 
to  this  change  in  demand,  but  the  reaction  on  the  packer  has  been 
so  direct  that  he  has  been  forced  to  translate  immediately  the 
desires  of  the  consumer  into  a  type  of  cattle  suitable  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  best  selling  cuts.  The  principal  factors  that  have  caused 


the  change  are  the  increase  in  the  population  of  cities  coupled  with 
the  reduced  ratio  of  producers ;  the  inroads  on  the  family  purse  made 
by  luxuries,  which  have  restricted  the  percentage  spent  on  necessi- 
ties; and  the  reduced  size  of  families  which  has  permitted  groceries 
with  small  meat  shops  vending  pound  to  two-pound  cuts  to  make 
deep  inroads  into  the  business  of  the  specialized  butcher. 

The  demand  for  heavy  cattle  varies  little  throughout  the  year. 
The  markets  of  the  big  cities,  principally  New  York,  Chicago, 
Philadelphia  and  Boston,  supply  the  principal  trade,  the  sales  being 
largely  to  hotels  and  clubs  that  have  a  standard  demand  for  certain 
cuts  the  year  around.  This  natural  demand  for  heavy  finished  cattle 
takes  only  about  1 5  per  cent  of  the  cattle  on  the  market,  their  live 
weight  being  1 300  pounds  and  up,  and  their  carcasses  making  about 
750  pounds  of  beef  and  up.  In  order  that  prices  for  this  class  of 
cattle  remain  steady  and  hold  the  same  relative  relation  to  other 
classes  of  cattle,  the  supply  must  be  regular  as  a  few  too  many  can 
readily  glut  the  market.  Unfortunately,  it  is  difficult  to  finish 
cattle  of  this  sort  at  all  seasons  of  the  year ;  few  of  them  coming  on  the 
market  in  the  period  from  August  ist  to  February  ist  excepting 
cattle  finished  for  shows  and  for  the  Christmas  trade.  From 
February  on  there  is  usually  a  sufficiency  of  this  class  of  cattle,  while 
late  March  and  April  may  find  a  few  too  many  with  consequent 
drops  in  price.  On  the  other  hand,  in  times  of  scarcity  of  heavy 
cattle,  buyers  having  orders,  for  this  class  of  stock  make  competition 
so  lively  that  steers  weighing  1400  pounds  or  up  which  will  satisfy 
their  trade,  often  bring  $i  to  $2  above  their  real  value  as  compared 
to  smaller  cattle  of  the  same  grade.  A  judgment  of  values  based 
on  the  price  of  this  class  of  cattle  either  in  times  of  scarcity  or 
surplus,  is  bound  to  be  misleading  to  the  average  feeder. 

The  profit  in  beef  production  in  the  future  will  increasingly  lie 
in  quality  stock.  Early  maturity  and  quick  money  turn-overs  are 
certain  to  be  the  keynotes  of  future  meat  production,  due  to  high 
land  and  feed  values.  Cold  blooded  stock  will  never  utilize  feed 
for  fattening  and  finishing  until  the  animals  are  well  grown,  three 
years  old  or  over,  while  breeders  and  feeders  will  need  to  have  their 
money  back  out  of  their  animals  by  the  time  they  are  two  years  old, 
unless  the  cattle  are  range  grown,  when  the  difference  in  production 
costs  will  permit  their  profitable  retention  for  another  year.  Fur- 
thermore, the  value  of  well-bred  cattle  has  been  demonstrated  during 
the  first  four  years  following  the  war  by  the  fact  that  well  finished 
yearlings  have  topped  the  market  at  all  times  for  periods  longer 
than  a  week  in  duration.  During  this  time  there  has  been  a  spread 
of  fifty  cents  to  two  dollars  per  hundredweight  between  the  year- 
lings and  older  cattle  of  the  same  quality.  Only  cattle  high  in  the 
blood  of  the  purebreds  are  capable  of  reaching  this  degree  of  finish 
in  their  yearling  form.  A  six-months  calf  of  good  blood,  dropped  in 
the  spring,  can  be  fattened  so  as  to  be  marketed  the  following  spring 
or  summer  from  any  cornbelt  farm,  but  a  six-months  scrub  will  not 


efficiently  utilize  its  feed  because  its  growth  is  slow,  and  it  will  not 
develop  as  rapidly,  fatten  as  well,  nor  grow  as  satisfactorily  as  the 
well-bred  animal.  Well-bred  calves  can  always  be  finished  from 
calfhood  on,  and  can  make  the  best  quality  of  carcass,  since  they 
can  utilize  efficiently  feed  that  the  scrub  cannot  consume  econom- 
ically from  lack  of  capacity  or  from  inability  to  fatten  or  grow. 

The  use  of  purebred  sires  is  the  certain  means  of  success  in  the 
future.  This  does  not  mean  the  indiscriminate  use  of  such  animals 
without  regard  to  results — prices  paid  for  them  must  be  always  as 
firmly  grounded  in  returns  as  prices  paid  for  feeders — but  it  does 
indicate  that  through  them  the  efficient  beef  production  of  the 
future  must  be  built.  Quality  as  recognized  today  means  better 
meat  for  the  consumer,  better  killing  qualities  for  the  packer,  and 
more  efficient  feeders  for  the  producer.  People  are  not  buying 
meat  nowadays  to  throw  part  of  it  away,  and  the  majority  of  fam- 
ilies with  restricted  pocketbooks  are  buying  the  medium  weight 
cuts.  The  livestock  market  simply  interprets  the  tendency  of 
the  meat-eating  public  and  it  recognizes  that  consumers  will  not 
tolerate  waste  except  at  a  discount. — JAMES  BROWN. 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 
PART  I. 

The  Function 


Beef  cattle  are  '  the  Keystone-  of'  live 
Position  of  stock  farming.    They  fit  into  the  farm 

Cattle  in  the          economy    more    perfectly    than    any 
System  of  other  animal  because  they  require  less 

Farming  labor  for  their  care,  they  are  less  sub- 

ject to  disease,  they  consume  cheap 
roughages  and  high  priced  concentrates  in  proportions 
better  suited  to  ordinary  farm  rotations,  and  their  prod- 
uct is  less  subject  to  speculative  and  seasonal  fluctuations 
than  any  other  class  of  meat  animals.  Beef  cattle  take 
less  fertility  from  the  farm  when  they  are  marketed  than 
any  other  major  farm  product.  Grain  can  be  sold  for 
cash  as  can  the  better  quality  of  hay,  but  low  grade  hay, 
cane,  corn  stalks,  and  pasture  have  a  very  limited  and 
unremunerative  market.  The  direct  sale  of  any  of  them 
increases  the  costs  in  harvesting  and  marketing  and 
reduces  the  producing  value  of  the  land  to  such  an 
extent  that  few  farmers  can  get  a  proper  return  for  it. 
Cattle  supply  the  necessary  market  for  both  crops  and 
farm  labor,  and  through  manure  retain  or  even  increase 
the  richness,  mellowness,  life  and  waterholding  capacity  of 
the  soil.  Cattle  feeding  is  the  ideal  operation  from  the 
standpoint  of  permanence  of  farming,  of  acquiring  a 
comprehensive  farm  equipment,  and  of  fully  employing 
farm  labor  the  year  around. 

Cattle     were     the     first     animals 
Origin  and  domesticated  by  man  for  purely  agri- 

Kinds  of  cultural  purposes.     They  were  kept 

Cattle  for  their  meat  and  hides  only  in  the 

earlier  times,  but  later  were  milked 
and  still  later  used  for  draft  purposes.  Unfortunately  the 
kind  of  cattle  that  are  best  for  beef.  are  not  best  for 

Page  Nine 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

milk  or  draft,  and  for  many  centuries  cattlemen  have 
selected  their  animals  with  these  differences  in  mind. 
'l:h<e';breeciers  o(  .continental  Europe  have  tried  to  com- 
bine'in  their  breecjs  all  of  the  traits  that  make  animals 
uSejuiVfor'/rnilk,  Jbeef.and  draft,  so-called  triple  purpose 
'  animals,'  but  since  many  of  the  characters  are  antagonistic 
to  each  other,  certain  compromises  in  type  have  had  to 
be  made,  which  have  rendered  the  animals  less  efficient 
for  each  of  the  special  purposes.  The  principal  example 
of  this  type  is  the  Fribourgeois,  the  popular  yellow  and 
white  breed  of  northeastern  France,  southeastern  Belgium, 
Luxemburg  and  southwestern  Germany.  The  almost 
complete  replacement  of  cattle  for  draft  purposes  by 
horses  in  Great  Britain  and  America  many  years  ago 
has  rendered  the  draft  requirement  unnecessary,  and  the 
common  breeds  in  use  in  these  two  countries  are  either 
dual  purpose  or  single  purpose.  The  dual  purpose 
breeds  are  those  that  have  a  fair  value  both  for  milk 
and  beef,  and  include  the  Milking  Shorthorn,  the  Red 
Poll,  and  the  Devon.  The  special  purpose  breeds  are 
either  milk  or  beef,  although  each  dairy  breed  has  some 
value  as  a  meat  animal  and  each  beef  breed  has  some 
value  as  a  milk  producer.  The  dairy  breeds  in  order  of 
their  beef  value  are  Brown  Swiss,  Holstein-Friesian, 
Ayrshire,  French  Canadian,  Guernsey  and  Jersey.  The 
beef  breeds  are  led  decidedly  by  the  Shorthorns  and 
Polled  Shorthorns  in  milk  production,  with  the  Herefords, 
Polled  Herefords,  Aberdeen-Angus  and  Galloways,  second- 
ary in  this  particular.  Illustrations  of  each  of  these 
types  may  be  found  opposite  pages  26  and  27. 


Page  Ten 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


PART  II. 

Cattle  Breeds 

Breed  As  shown  in  the  preceding  para- 

Qualifications  graph,  beef  cattle  may  come  from  any 
of  six  specialized  breeds,  while  dual 
purpose  and  even  dairy  breeds  show  some  beef  merit. 
Within  the  beef  breeds  themselves,  there  is  more  difference 
between  good  and  poor  animals  of  one  breed  than  there 
is  between  the  different  breeds.  Supporters  of  each 
breed  claim  special  characteristics  for  their  favorites 
which  are  supposed  to  make  them  better  than  their 
rivals,  but  it  has  never  been  proved  that  the  qualities 
for  which  one  breed  may  be  famous  do  not  appear  in  the 
representatives  of  other  breeds.  For  example,  rustling 
qualities  and  ability  to  fatten  on  grass  are  supposed  to 
be  pre-eminent  Hereford  characteristics;  quality,  milk 
production  and  adaptability,  Shorthorn  characteristics; 
and  wonderful  hardiness,  a  Galloway  characteristic;  yet 
records  of  our  fairs  and  ranges  can  nearly  always  show 
where  the  breed  in  question  has  been  excelled  by  a  few 
individuals  of  other  breeds  in  the  points  where  supremacy 
was  claimed.  Hence  the  young  breeder  can  well  afford 
to  take  the  stock  that  suits  his  purpose  where  he  is  located, 
regardless  of  breed,  keeping  always  in  mind  the  market 
for  his  young  animals. 

Race  horse  breeders  have  a  maxim 
The  Purebred  that  "What  is  bred  in  the  bone  will 
Animal  come  out  in  the  flesh."  This  applies  in 

a  striking  way  to  cattle,  for  "cat- 
hammed,  fish-backed"  dams  and  sires  produce  "cat- 
hammed,  fish-backed"  calves  just  as  surely  as  one  roll- 
ing tumbleweed  will  infect  a  field.  Conversely,  broad- 
backed,  meaty  cattle  will  as  certainly  'produce  broad- 

Page  Eleven 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

backed  meaty  calves.  This  quality  of  being  able  to 
transmit  to  the  offspring  the  beef  qualities  for  which 
selection  has  been  made,  convinced  breeders  that  selected 
stock  was  purer  in  its  inheritance  than  unselected  and 
the  term  purebred  was  adopted  for  such  animals.  This 
does  not  mean  that  the  animals  are  absolutely  pure  for 
such  traits  and  will  transmit  no  others,  but  it  does  mean 
that  they  will  do  so  with  infinitely  greater  regularity 
than  the  unselected  kind.  No  strain  of  cattle  at  present 
exists  that  cannot  be  made  to  breed  more  uniformly  than 
it  does  now,  but  the  average  purebred  animal  breeds  so 
much  more  uniformly  than  his  grade  and  scrub  rivals 
that  his  worth  cannot  be  gainsaid.  The  cattle  raiser 
who  uses  purebred  bulls  over  a  period  of  years  invariably 
has  more  uniform  and  cheaper  finishing  steers  than  the 
man  who  uses  bulls  of  mixed  bloods. 

Pure   breeds  of  beef  cattle   arose 
How  the  through    the    selection    of    animals 

Purebred  slightly  superior  to  the  stock  of  the 

Developed  surrounding  districts  with  respect  to 

beef  production.  The  first  improver 
of  beef  cattle  was  an  Englishman,  a  resident  of  Leicester- 
shire, named  Robert  Bakewell.  He  worked  with  the  old 
Longhorn  stock  of  central  England,  and  being  a  skilled 
anatomist  was  able  to  appreciate  the  means  whereby 
changes  in  external  form  would  affect  the  carcass.  He 
selected  for  increased  thickness  of  loin,  rib  and  quarter, 
for  more  rapid  fattening  qualities,  and  for  early  maturity. 
By  mating  together  related  animals  he  fixed  these  traits 
so  strongly  that  his  cattle  became  known  all  over  England, 
while  his  sheep  which  he  improved  by  similar  methods, 
were  so  well  known  that  George  Washington  imported 
rams  of  Bakewell  breeding  for  use  on  his  Mt.  Vernon 
estates.  From  a  careful  study  of  Bakewell's  methods 
the  Colling  brothers,  the  Booth  and  the  Bates  families 
established  Shorthorn  cattle,  and  a  few  years  later  the 
Tompkins,  Prices  and  Hewers  founded  the  Herefords. 

Page  Twelve 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

Three  or  four  decades  after  this  the  foundations  of  the 
Aberdeen-Angus  were  securely  laid  by  Hugh  Watson  in 
the  north  of  Scotland,  while  numerous  breeders  were 
busily  evolving  the  Galloway.  During  the  eighties  of 
the  last  century  the  problem  of  horn  bruises  in  shipping 
cattle  became  so  important  in  America  that  the  Polled 
Shorthorn  and  Polled  Hereford  arose.  Each  of  these 
breeds  was  developed  to  meet  a  special  economic  need, 
and  the  animals  chosen  as  founders  of  the  breed  were 
arbitrarily  selected  on  the  basis  of  their  transmitting  the 
desired  characters  to  their  descendants. 

The  success  of  pure  breeds  of  cattle 
The  Value  of  in  meeting  the  needs  for  which  they 
the  Purebred  have  been  developed  is  evident  by  a 
comparison  of  the  average  sale  values 
of  purebred  breeding  stock  with  market  stock  of  approx- 
imately equal  quality.  This  latter  class  may  be  found  in 
the  native  steers  marketed  at  Chicago  each  year  and  the 
difference  in  value  between  them  and  purebred  cattle  may 
be  interpreted  as  the  value  of  the  reproductive  function 
plus  the  pure  breeding.  The  data  are  as  follows : 


Year  Native 

Short  horns 

Herefords 

Aberdeen-Angus 

i 

iteers 

Number 

Value 

Ratio 

Number 

Value 

Ratio 

lumber 

Value 

Ratio 

1900 

$56 

$277 

4-94 

,847 

$171 

4.84 

541 

$288 

5.14 

1901 

54 

4.045 

281 

5.20 

.885 

241 

4.46 

7*r  • 
894 

177 

5-31 

1902 

6l 

6,152 

260 

4.26 

.597 

266 

4.36 

1,065 

260 

4.26 

1903 

50 

4.474 

174 

3-48 

.059 

171 

3  44 

I.04I 

22O 

4-40 

1  904 

51 

1.755 

101 

1.98 

.481 

117 

2.29 

932 

133 

2.6! 

1905 

5i 

3.5H 

140 

1.75 

,179 

"5 

2.25 

1,084 

130 

2.53 

1906 

53 

4.2IO 

145 

2.74 

,122 

121 

2.28 

1.159 

»55 

2.91 

1907 

57 

3,608 

160 

2.8o 

.358 

124 

2.18 

1,1  19 

135 

2.37 

1908 

63 

2.689 

147 

2.33 

936 

116 

1.84 

955 

165 

2.62 

1909 

66 

3,308 

159 

2.40 

.398 

127 

1.92 

935 

I8q 

2.86 

1910 

67 

1.  999 

188 

2.8o 

,214 

146 

2.18 

995 

167 

2.49 

1911 

64 

2.258 

163 

1-55 

.203 

160 

2.50 

713 

143 

2.23 

1912 

76 

1.882 

177 

2.33 

957 

1  80 

1-37 

627 

139 

1.83 

1913 

83 

1.175 

22O 

2.65 

.707 

135 

2.83 

707 

171 

1.83 

1914 
1915 

87 
88 

1.945 
3.038 

193 

223 

2.22 
1-53 

,898 
3.880 

212 
133 

1-44 
2.65 

915 
1.415 

203 
206 

1-33 
2.34 

1916 

94 

7,252 

299 

3.18 

5.983 

355 

3-78 

1,668 

149 

2.65 

1917 

109 

9.739 

367 

3-37 

9.154 

493 

4-51 

L358 

309 

2.83 

1918 

138 

I  1.  01  I 

514 

3'7i 

",594 

481 

3-49 

4.  1  02 

386 

2.80 

1919 

145 

9.305 

485 

3-34 

19.095 

491 

3-39 

5.4H 

512 

3-53 

1910 

130 

11,272 

604 

4-65 

15.431 

416 

3.20 

5,341 

706 

5  43 

1921 

80 

4.76l 

311 

3.89 

8,516 

2O  I 

2.51 

1.331 

272 

3.40 

Page  Thirteen 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

These  figures  indicate  that  apparently  the  normal  ratio 
of  purebred  values  to  market  values  is  about  3  to  i, 
although  this  ratio  is  varied  from  rather  frequently. 
Apparently  the  values  of  all  pure  breeds  were  inflated 
during  the  first  few  years  of  the  century  and  again  during 
the  war  period  just  gone  through.  The  inflation  of  the 
early  years  was  probably  not  due  entirely  to  the  after 
effects  of  the  Spanish-American  War  but  in  general  to  the 
initial  era  of  prosperity  in  farm  production  about  this 
time,  which  so  increased  the  buying  power  of  the  farmer 
that  he  was  able  to  compete  for  better  bred  livestock  to 
a  greater  degree  than  at  any  time  previously.  In  general, 
purebred  breeders  should  feel  well  satisfied  if  they  secure 
from  three  to  three  and  one-half  times  as  much  for  their 
purebreds  as  is  paid  for  native  steers  on  the  Chicago 
market. 

The  ultimate  test  of  the  purebred 
The  animal  is  its  possession  of  a  registered 

Pedigree  pedigree.    Not  the  mere  possesion  of 

a  pedigree  counts,  for  all  cattle  have 
pedigrees.  This  term  is  just  another  name  for  ancestors, 
or  a  tabulation  of  ancestors.  All  cattle  have  ancestors, 
but  purebred  cattle  have  certified  ancestors,  and  it  is 
well  known  that  the  average  of  its  ancestors  are  well 
above  the  average  of  the  ancestors  of  scrub  animals. 
Poor  cattle  with  poor  cattle  in  their  pedigrees  produce 
poor  cattle,  while  good  cattle  with  good  cattle  in  their 
pedigrees  produce  good  cattle.  Registered  animals  have 
a  recorded  pedigree  behind  them  which  shows  the  warp 
and  woof  of  which  they  are  made.  The  registry  associa- 
tion by  its  approval  of  the  animal's  ancestry  gives  assur- 
ance to  the  breeder  of  a  well  marked  standard  of  calves 
resulting  from  its  use. 


Page  Fourteen 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


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*£«  Fifteen 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


PART  III. 

Cattle  Breeding 

Native  cattle  in  any  section  of  the 
How  Cattle  country    have    differed    considerably 

Are  Improved  from  the  type  which  has  come  to  be 
accepted  as  standard  by  American 
steer  feeders.  The  general  procedure  by  which  the  quality 
of  this  native  stock  has  been  improved  has  been  through 
the  grading  up  with  sires  of  improved  and  purebred  stock* 
These  animals  come  from  strains  which  have  been  selected 
for  special  beef  purposes  and  in  addition  to  possessing  the 
desired  type  are  usually  able  to  transmit  it  to  their  off- 
spring. Despite  the  loyalty  of  the  supporters  of  the 
different  breeds  to  their  favored  stocks  there  is  little 
difference  in  the  ability  of  Shorthorns,  Herefords,  Aber- 
deen-Angus, and  Galloways  to  transmit  improved  beef- 
making  ability.  Because  the  Aberdeen-Angus  and 
Galloways  happen  to  be  black  and  polled  their  sup- 
porters have  believed  them  to  be  more  prepotent  for 
grading  purposes  than  some  of  the  lighter  colored  animals 
but  it  is  now  known  that  these  characteristics  are  inherited 
separately  and  have  no  relation  necessarily  to  the  trans- 
mission of  fattening  qualities  and  early  maturity  which 
are  passed  on  as  a  result  of  their  own  merits. 

To  grade  up  the  stock  of  a  locality 
Grading  up  means  literally  to  use  purebred  bulls 

Beef  Cattle  on  native  cows  generation  after  genera- 

tion. The  characters  which  make  a 
purebred  valuable  are  thus  transferred  to  the  herd,  the 
degree  of  transfer  depending  on  the  number  of  crosses  of 
improved  blood.  For  example:  If  a  Hereford  be  crossed 
to  Florida  "piney- woods"  cows,  half  of  the  inherited 
characters  of  the  offspring  are  Hereford,  the  other  half, 
"piney- woods."  If  to  these  crossbred  heifers,  Herefords 

Page  Sixteen 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

are  again  mated,  on  the  average  three  quarters  of  the 
traits  inherited  will  be  Hereford,  and  one  quarter  "piney- 
woods."  This  does  not  mean  that  any  single  individual 
is  three-fourths  Hereford,  but  only  that  the  average  of 
all  characters  in  that  generation  is  three-fourths  Here- 
ford. As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  possible,  although  not 
probable,  that  some  animals  of  the  second  cross  might 
have  entirely  Hereford  characters,  with  a  similar  number 
only  half  Hereford,  and  with  the  others  intergrading  be- 
tween, but  the  average  would  still  be  three-quarters 
Hereford  or  75  percent.  By  continuing  the  use  of  Here- 
ford bulls  for  several  generations,  the  proportion  of  Here- 
ford characters  would  be  increased,  while  some  of  the 
characters  would  be  pure  Hereford,  beginning  with  the 
second  cross.  The  proportion  of  these  pure  characters 
would  increase  with  each  generation  although  not  as 
rapidly  as  the  total  number  of  Hereford  characters.  The 
more  that  Hereford  sires  are  used,  the  more  likely  the 
resulting  grade  dams  will  transmit  Hereford  traits,  and 
the  purer  the  characters  of  the  new  generations  of  calves 
will  be.  The  average  rate  of  increase  in  these  characters 
is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

One  cross 50%  Hereford  traits. 

Two  crosses 75%  Hereford  traits. 

Three  crosses 87.5%  Hereford  traits. 

Four  crosses 93-75%  Hereford  traits. 

Five  crosses 96.875%  Hereford  traits. 

Six  crosses 98.4375%  Hereford  traits 

And  so  on,  each  additional  cross  producing  animals 
having  a  proportion  of  Hereford  characters  half  way 
between  the  last  generation  and  100  percent.  This  does 
not  apply  to  Herefords  only  but  to  any  improved  breed 
of  livestock.  Herefords  are  used  simply  for  illustrative 
purposes.  Some  breeds  seem  to  be  more  potent  in  trans- 
mitting their  characters  than  others,  but  this  is  due  to 
their  possession  of  more  noticeable  characters  than  the 

Page  Seventeen 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

others.  For  example  the  Aberdeen-Angus  is  black,  a 
dominant  color  in  inheritance  no  matter  what  breed  of 
cattle  it  is  found  in,  and  polled,  also  a  dominant  character, 
hence  it  markedly  affects  the  appearance  of  its  calves. 
This  is  only  in  appearance,  however,  as  other  breeds  are 
able  to  build  up  the  iattening  tendency  just  as  rapidly. 

Neither  sire  nor  dam  transmits  to 
The  Relative  their  offspring  all  of  the  qualities 
Influence  of  which  they  possess,  but  on  the  average 

Sire  and  Dam  each  transmits  only  half.  On  this 
account  it  is  highly  important  to  have 
well  bred  bulls  so  that  their  contribution  to  the  offspring 
will  be  more  uniform.  The  cows  of  the  herd  always 
carry  more  widely  divergent  characters  than  it  is  pos- 
sible for  any  one  bull  to  possess,  hence  their  hereditary 
contribution  to  the  calves  will  be  very  much  more  variable 
than  the  hereditary  contribution  of  the  bull.  Therefore 
the  old  statement  that  the  bull  is  half  of  the  herd  is  cor- 
rect, but  if  we  consider  his  power  to  make  the  herd 
uniform,  we  can  really  consider  him  as  having  more  than 
a  fifty  percent  influence. 

Purebred  sires  to  increase  the  pro- 
The  Proportion  duction  of  better  beef  animals,  provide 
of  Purebred  the  most  serious  need  of  the  live- 

Cattle  stock  industry  at  present.     While  the 

cattle  producers  of  the  cornbelt  and 
of  the  range,  in  general  realize  the  desirability  of  the 
better  bred  sires  there  are  other  sections  of  the  country 
in  which  the  real  value  of  the  improved  type  is  not 
understood,  and  in  which  such  campaigns  as  the  Better 
Sire  Movement  are  bound  to  bring  first-class  results. 
The  1920  Census  reports  66,652,559  cattle  on  farms  in 
the  United  States.  Of  this  number  only  3  percent,  or 
1,981,514  are  purebred,  and  of  these  1,064,912  are  cattle 
of  the  beef  breeds. 

Page  Eighteen 


II. 


I 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

One  means  whereby  this  low  per- 
Community  centage    of    purebred    animals    can 

Breeding  be  more  efficiently  utilized  is  through 

the  system  of  community  or  circuit 
breeding.  If  the  farmers  of  a  community  organize  to 
use  one  breed  and  exchange  the  sires  either  under  a 
system  of  community  ownership  or  by  private  sale  to 
one  another,  additional  years  of  service  may  be  gotten 
out  of  high-class  breeding  bulls  whose  usefulness  due  to 
relationship  to  the  females  of  the  herd  may  be  outlived 
in  two  or  three  years.  Furthermore,  the  concentration 
of  good  cattle  in  a  community  will  attract  large  numbers 
of  purebred  buyers  and  will  give  the  market  cattle  shipped 
from  the  district  a  reputation  among  shippers  and  killers. 
Waukesha  County,  Wis.,  and  Gage  County,  Neb.,  are 
well  known  examples  of  the  advantage  of  co-operation 
between  neighboring  breeders. 

While  supporters  of  the  different 
The  breeds  of  cattle  try  to  claim  all  the 

Distribution  good  things  in  the  beef  category  for 

of  the  Breeds  their  favorite  breeds,  the  bulk  of  live- 
stock men  have  a  feeling  that  it  is  not 
a  question  of  breed  merit  for  beef  production  but  of  the 
merit  of  the  individual  bull,  cow  or  steer.  Nevertheless 
the  average  run  of  the  different  breeds  finds  them  defi- 
nitely adapted  to  certain  types  of  farming  and  certain 
general  conditions,  although  no  breed  can  be  considered 
exclusively  to  monopolize  a  certain  region  or  a  certain 
function.  For  example:  the  Hereford  is  particularly 
well  adapted  to  the  range  country  because  of  its  ability 
to  fatten  on  grass;  the  Shorthorn  is  well  adapted  to 
general  farming  because  of  its  size,  ready  fattening  and 
milking  qualities;  the  Aberdeen-Angus  is  especially  well 
adapted  to  cornbelt  feed  lots  and  baby  beef  production 
because  of  its  early  maturity  and  most  excellent  carcass 
qualities;  the  Red  Poll,  to  the  central  west  because  of  its 

Page  Nineteen 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

dual  purpose  ability;  the  Galloway,  to  the  north  and  the 
short  grass  country  because  of  its  hardiness;  and  the 
Polled  Shorthorns  and  Polled  Herefords  to  the  same 
regions  as  the  horned  breeds  where  hornlessness  com- 
mands a  premium.  While  individuals  of  each  breed  may 
succeed  where  other  breeds  are  especially  adapted,  yet 
there  is  little  doubt  as  to  the  general  utility  of  the  dif- 
ferent breeds  under  the  conditions  described.  The  1920 
census  gives  the  following  distribution  of  purebred  beef 
cattle  by  states,  omitting  i ,  1 94  head  of  Devons.  The  breed 
was  not  reported  for  the  63,944  head  of  purebred  beef 
cattle  listed  under  "all  others". 


Division  and  State 
United  States  i 

Total 
,064,912. 

Aber- 
deen- 
Angus 

108,524 

Gallo- 
way 

6  920 

Here- 
ford 

4O5    58O 

Polled 
Durhar 

61  755 

Short- 
n     horn 

416  995 

All 
others 

7  565 

285 

841 

61 

Maine  
New  Hampshire.  .  . 
Vermont  
Massachusetts  

2,519 

I,Q06 

1,209 
1,186 

63 
ii 
28 

112 

1.530 
888 
371 
344 

466 
54 
272 

442 
676 
491 

717 

il 

28 
7 

Rhode  Island  
Connecticut  
Middle  Atlantic  
New  York  
New  J  ersey  

68 
677 
8.341 
2.148 
93 

71 

688 
248 

12 

23 
23 

64 
I38 

746 
60 

49 
1,394 
457 

4 

208 

4,865 
1,118 

10 
467 
197 

Pennsylvania  
East  North  Central  .  . 
Ohio  
Indiana  
Illinois  
Michigan  
Wisconsin  
West  North  Central.. 
Minnesota  
Iowa  

6,101 
167,471 
25,502 
29,509 
73.584 
16,267 
22,610 
532.252 
56,028 
1  5  1  ,359 

428 
20,6l3 
2,642 
4,807 

10,106 
J.5IQ 
i,539 
63,023 
5,398 
27,457 

94 
94 

5.323 
175 
286 

686 
30,242 
3,229 
6,615 
16,370 
1,825 
2.203 

179,155 

10.787 
40,894 

937 
10.928 
1.542 
1.183 
3.147 
1.067 
3,989 
20,488 
2,415 
5  475 

3,676 
97,40i 
17,324 
16,147 
39.093 
1  1,712 
I3.I2J 
230,693 
32,419 
69  560 

260 

8.122 
765 

757 
4,702 
144 
1,754 
33.570 
4.834 
7  687 

Missouri  
North  Dakota  
South  Dakota  
Nebraska  
Kansas  

83,902 
29,024 
57,100 
74.174 
80665 

12,916 
3,124 
4,788 
4.640 
4  7OO 

I,H4 
183 
697 
411 

2  457 

32.609 
7,089 
21,663 
27,418 
38  695 

2.309 
1.359 
3.162 
3.420 

2  348 

30.517 
14,723 
23,293 
32,777 

4,437 
2,546 
3-497 
5.508 

South  Atlantic  
Delaware 

27,732 
16 

5,407 
I 

134 

10,640 

1.  121 

8,651 

1.572 

Maryland  
Virginia 

920 
8  191 

'35 

I    121 

62 

1  06 
2.  1  35 

243 

380 

414 
4  289 

22 

West  Virginia  
North  Carolina.  .  .  . 
South  Carolina.  .  .  . 
Georgia  
Florida... 

8,035 
3.085 
i,  680 
4,397 
1,  408 

1  ,962 
786 
328 

497 
577 

37 
35 

4.118 
933 
862 
1,799 
687 

?8o 
156 
3£ 
226 

1,709 
73* 
103 
1.293 
06 

129 
302 

351 
516 
48 

Page  Twenty 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


Division  and  State 

East  South  Central. 
Kentucky  
Tennessee  
Alabama  

Total 

3^.341 
10,864 
i3.3iq 
4.525 

Aber- 
deen- 
Angus 
8,460 
1.706 
3.799 
883 

Gallo- 
way 

Here- 
ford 

12,623 
4.375 
4.084 
'.524 

Polled 
Durham 

2,381 
353 
1.334 
379 

Short- 
horn 

9.9io 
3.536 
3.286 
1.508 

All 

others 

2,926 
894 
816 
23  1 

Mississippi  

West  South  Central  .  . 
Arkansas  
Louisiana          .    .  . 

7.634 

138,075 
6.536 
3  083 

2,072 

5.687 
893 
3'3 

qio 
61 

2,640 

85,220 
1.726 
i  340 

315 

8.775 
1.388 
226 

1,580 

19.358 
1.128 
840 

985 

8,065 
280 
164 

Oklahoma  

38.713 

1.876 

3  '9 

12,1  33 

1,217 

22.OI9 

I   I4O 

Texas  

Mountain 

8q,743 
1  1  6  1  88 

2,605 

530 
436 

70,021 

5,944 

4.371 

6,272 

Montana  
Idaho 

19.543 
15  238 

9*7 
295 

1  98 

10,699 

1,291 

5,621 
6  298 

780 

6l4 

Wyoming 

1  1  845 

Colorado  

27,162 

615 

11   I 

I  7  270 

I  1  66 

6  989 

New  Mexico 

1  7  400 

14  563 

Arizona  

5.683 

5  023 

117 

224 

Utah  

10  934 

62 

5  978 

I  8O 

Nevada  

3.769 

15 

2,422 

682 

617 

33 

Pacific  

30  944 

2  221 

IO  355 

6415 

Washington  
Oregon  

5.840 
1  1,  860 

263 
776 

935 
4  182 

1.008 
1  307 

3.281 
3  758 

353 

g-,7 

California... 

11.244 

I.I82 

?.2l8 

1.IOO 

1.OA< 

<*<: 

Page  Twenty-one 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 
PART  IV. 

The  Production  of  Beef  Cattle 

The  success  of  growing  cattle  for 
Foundation  the  market  depends  in  a  large  degree 

Blood  for  Beef     on  the  kind  of  calves  that  are  pro- 
Production  duced.    Unless  the  right  foundations 

in  blood  and  type  are  laid,  no  amount 
of  feeding  by  the  professional  feeder  or  skill  in  killing  and 
cutting  by  the  packer  can  make  up  for  the  original  de- 
ficiency. Hence  it  is  up  to  the  breeder  of  feeding  cattle 
to  use  the  right  kind  of  bulls  and  continually  to  breed  up 
the  females  of  his  herd.  Unless  proper  mating  is  made  at 
the  start,  choice  to  prime  steers  are  rarely,  if  ever,  pro- 
duced. 

The  producer  of  range  cattle  has 
The  Problems  many  problems  to  face  due  to  short- 
of  the  Range  ages  of  feed  and  water,  that  make  his 
Cattle  Breeder  questions  of  special  importance.  The 

chief  difficulty  to  engage  his  attention 
is  the  prevention  of  deterioration  in  size,  and  he  must 
constantly  introduce  heavy  boned  bulls  to  keep  his  stock 
from  "running  out."  It  is  the  belief  of  students  of  this 
situation  that  the  chief  remedy  to  be  applied  is  not 
through  breeding  but  through  feed,  since  the  range  is 
an  abnormal  environment  for  cattle  bred  to  excel  under 
the  conditions  of  Scotland,  England  and  the  American 
cornbelt.  The  deficiency  seems  to  be  in  the  concentrates, 
that  is,  the  protein  and  mineral  matter,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose legumes  should  be  introduced  wherever  possible, 
such  as  lespedeza,  alfalfa,  or  any  other  clovers  that  make 
a  good  start.  To  tide  over  the  feed  shortages  of  snow- 
bound winters  and  extra  dry  summers,  it  will  pay  the 
ranchman  to  grow  corn,  kafir,  cane,  sunflowers,  or  other 
crops  that  will  make  silage,  and  put  them  away  in  pit 
silos  that  can  be  dug  at  convenient  spots  for  watering  and 
feeding.  These  will  be  found  very  useful  in  ordinary 
seasons,  and  reserves  may  be  maintained  for  three  or  four 

Page  Twenty-two 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

years  by  keeping  close  watch  for  spoilage  and  using  only 
the  older  silage.  These  may  seem  to  involve  a  greater 
degree  of  extra  work  than  the  rancher  would  desire,  but 
he  must  remember  that  only  by  the  attention  to  such 
details  as  these,  can  he  continue  to  make  his  business 
uniformly  successful. 

The    feeder   buyer   has   the   most 
Buying  important  job   from  the  standpoint 

Feeders  of  profit  and  loss  that  is  found  in  the 

cattle  industry  until  the  animals  are 
finally  bought  for  the  kill.  Few  feeders  realize  the  extreme 
importance  of  buying  their  animals  at  the  right  price. 
Fewer  still  realize  the  factors  that  determine  feeder 
values.  Until  a  few  years  ago  feeder  prices  were  deter- 
mined by  the  cost  of  finishing,  and  cattlemen  could  take 
more  chances  on  coming  out  through  the  big  end  of  the 
horn  than  they  can  nowadays.  Since  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  the  price  of  feeds  has  been  so  variable  and  the 
demand  for  meat  has  been  so  fluctuating  that  at  times  the 
cheaper  and  lighter  carcasses  not  salable  in  pre-war  times 
have  been  taken  at  relatively  very  high  prices.  In 
addition  to  the  reaction  against  waste  in  cuts,  there  is  an 
actual  increase  in  the  willingness  to  eat  unfinished  meats, 
so  the  spread  between  the  thin  and  finished  animal  which 
held  in  past  years  has  been  decidedly  narrowed.  This 
necessitates  the  closest  possible  study  of  finishing  costs 
on  the  part  of  the  feeder  buyer,  and  the  most  careful 
supervision  of  the  purchase  of  his  stock.  Feeder  cattle 
not  prudently  bought  can  never  make  money,  no  matter 
how  economically  the  feeding  may  be  managed. 

The   majority   of   feeders   do   not 
Feeding  recognize    the    importance    of    well 

Equipment  arranged  dry  sanitary  lots  for  steer 

feeding,  nor  do  they  realize  the  inti- 
macy of  the  relation  of  conditions  in  the  feedlot  with  the 
returns  the  steers  are  able  to  show.-  It  is  important 

Page  Twenty-three 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


from  the  standpoint  of  greatest  efficiency  in  cattle  feed- 
ing that  not  too  many  animals  be  confined  in  the  same 
lot.  The  balance  point  as  to  numbers  is  determined  by 
the  rate  at  which  the  cattle  gain  and  the  increase  in 
costs  due  to  equipment  and  greater  amount  of  labor. 
East  of  the  Mississippi,  the  best  results  are  obtained  with 
from  30  to  45  steers  in  a  lot,  while  farther  west  as  many 
as  250  may  be  handled.  The  determining  factors  are 
the  cost  of  labor  and  land  as  compared  to  the  gains  of  the 
animals.  The  usual  space  required  for  steers  has  been 


found  by  experience  to  run  about  qo  to  100  square  feet 
per  head,  including  shed  covering  which  should  allow 
20  to  25  square  feet  each.  Where  feeding  is  to  be  con- 
ducted over  a  period  of  time  hard  surfaced  lots  should  be 
maintained,  the  shed  being  open,  but  closed  to  the  north, 
west  and  east.  Concrete  foundations  prove  most  suit- 
able, but  are  too  expensive  in  many  sections  of  the 

Page  Twenty-four 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

country.  Well  packed  crushed  rock,  brick  or  tile  dust, 
or  other  surfacing  material  may  be  used,  the  latter  being 
disadvantageous  for  cleaning  although  permitting  the 
cattle  to  keep  out  of  the  muck.  Drainage  for  cattle  lots 
is  perhaps  most  essential,  as  when  the  water  runs  off, 
even  dirt  lots  may  be  kept  in  fair  condition.  Feed  racks 
should  have  sufficient  frontage  to  care  for  all  of  the 
steers  without  crowding.  This  means  that  there  should 
be  2^"  to  3  feet  front  per  steer.  Some  feeders  have  had 
considerable  success  in  using  a  combination  feed  rack 
for  grain  and  roughage  as  indicated  in  Fig.  A  in  the 
accompanying  illustration,  while  others  have  a  separate 
trough  for  grain  and  silage  with  a  rack  for  hay  as  shown 
in  Fig.  B.  The  combination  rack  is  a  little  cheaper  to 
construct,  but  the  separate  racks  operate  a  little  more 
satisfactorily  from  the  free  choice  basis  for  the  steer, 
since  the  animals  have  a  better  chance  to  balance  indi- 
vidually their  grain  against  their  roughage.  Many  steers 
come  gradually  to  have  their  respective  places  at  the 
trough,  and  although  they  do  not  consume  all  the  grain, 
they  keep  other  steers  away  by  remaining  to  eat  silage 
or  hay.  Feeding  troughs  should  always  be  cleaned  after 
each  feeding  and  kept  scrupulously  sweet.  Salt  should 
always  be  available,  as  it  promotes  the  animal's  thrift 
and  increases  his  ability  to  consume  feed. 

The  great  change  in  feed  prices  dur- 
Some  Cattle  ing  and  following  the  world  war  has 
Rations  to  a  certain  extent  invalidated  the 

standard  rations  proposed  by  the 
experiment  stations.  Each  state  is  now  conducting  in- 
vestigations on  the  growing  and  feeding  of  cattle  with 
cheap  feeds,  feeds  that  in  smaller  measure  compete  with 
human  needs.  This  has  limited  very  markedly  the  use 
of  grains,  so  the  following  rations  are  composed  of  cheap 
and  available  feeds  in  the  sections  of  the  United  States 
suggested : 

Page  Twenty-five 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


Section 

Growing 

Fattening 

Bluegrass  

Corn  silage  or 
Corn  fodder 
Stalk  Fields 
Straw  stacks 
.5  Ibs.  oilmeal  or  cotton- 
seed meal 
Bluegrass  pasture 

Corn  silage  25-30  Ibs. 
Clover  or  alfalfa  hay 
8-10  Ibs. 
All  corn  steers  will  eat 
Oilmeal    or    cottonseed 
Oilmeal    or    cottonseed 
meal  1-2  Ibs. 

Southeast  

Velvet  bean  fields 
Peanut  hay  in  winter 
Cottonseed  meal  and 
hulls 
Bermuda  grass  pasture 

Corn  silage  25-30  Ibs. 
Cottonseed     meal     6-8 
pounds  or 
Velvet   bean  meal   and 
cornstalk  meal  mixed 
all  steers  will  eat 

Central  west  

3orn  silage  or 
Corn  fodder  or 
Stalk  fields 
Straw  stacks 
Corn  3  to  6  Ibs.  in  winter 
Oilmeal    or    cottonseed 
meal  i  to  2  Ibs. 
Bluegrass  pasture 

Corn  silage  25-30  Ibs. 
Alfalfa  dry  clover  hay 
8-10  Ibs. 
All  corn  steers  will  eat 
Oilmeal    or    cottonseed 
meal  1.5-2.5  Ibs. 

Northwest  

^ange 
Drairie  or  legume  hay 
Straw  stacks 
Sunflower  silage 
Beet  pulp  where  availa- 
ble 

Damaged  grains 
Peafields 
Legume  hay 
Oilmeal  2-3  Ibs. 

Southwest 

^ange 

Silage  grain  sorghum  or 

Drairie  or  alfalfa  hay 
Cottonseed  meal  in  win- 
ter 2-3  Ibs. 

corn  25-30  Ibs. 
Cottonseed  cake  5-6  Ibs. 
Alfalfa    or    prairie    hay 
8-10  Ibs. 

It  is  possible  in  some  districts  of  the  blue-grass  section 
to  substitute  peanut  meal  and  velvet  bean  meal  for 
cottonseed  meal,  especially  on  farms  possessing  suitable 
grinders  for  this  purpose.  In  the  southeast  section  the 
main  reliance  in  growing  steers  must  be  placed  on  cotton- 
seed meal  and  hulls;  the  velvet  bean  fields,  the  Bermuda 
grass  pasture  and  the  peanut  vine  hay  supplementing  in 
the  periods  when  the  cottonseed  is  not  available.  For  fat- 

Page  Twenty-six 


A  draft,  beef  and  milk  type  of  France,  Simmenthal-Fribourgeois  cross. 
(See  page  10.; 


A  beef  and  milk  type,  the  champion  Red  Polled  cow  "Constant' 
(See  page  10.) 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

tening,  the  meal  produced  by  grinding  the  entire  velvet 
bean  plant  and  the  entire  corn  plant,  gives  a  bulky  and 
nutritious  feed  which  the  steer  can  use  profitably  up  to 
the  physical  limits  of  its  consumption.  The  northwest 
presents  two  distinct  problems,  the  range  problem  and 
the  small  farm  problem.  The  small  farmer  has  a  variety 
of  products  available  for  cattle  growing,  but  the  range 
producer  is  limited  to  the  grass  of  his  acres  and  prairie  hay, 
silage  or  straw  in  the  winter. 

Success  in  growing  cattle  for  market 
Growing  depends  upon  two  things,  the  breed- 

Ihe  Calf  ing  of  the  calf  and  the  start  in  life 

the  calf  receives.  When  calves  are 
intended  for  straight  beef  production  only  a  small  quan- 
tity of  feed  in  addition  to  milk  is  necessary  up  to  weaning 
time,  but  they  should  be  taught  to  eat  supplemental  feeds 
during  this  period  to  prevent  a  set  back  when  milk  no 
longer  is  furnished.  The  amount  of  dry  feeds  consumed 
will  be  limited  at  first  but  should  be  increased  gradually 
until  the  calf  no  longer  needs  milk  when  six  to  eight 
months  old.  Calves  intended  for  baby  beef  should  begin 
on  grain  when  four  to  six  months  old,  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  ground  by  weight  of  corn,  oats,  and  wheat  bran 
is  good  to  start  with,  and  after  the  calves  have  become 
accustomed  to  it,  it  may  be  fed  whole.  There  is  less 
danger  of  digestive  disturbance  and  scours  when  the 
corn  and  oats  are  whole  than  when  ground.  The  grain 
allowance  should  be  increased  gradually  so  that  weaning 
time  will  not  provide  a  set-back  to  the  calves.  From 
then  on  calves  intended  for  baby  beef  should  be  kept  on 
full  feed.  The  following  rations  may  prove  suitable  in 
different  sections  of  the  country: 

RATION  No.  i 

Corn 10  Ibs. 

Cottonseed  Meal 2  Ibs. 

Clover  Hay 3  Ibs. 

Silage : 12  Ibs. 

Page  Twenty-seven 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE      RAISING 

Oil  meal  and  alfalfa  may  be  substituted  for  cotton- 
seed meal  and  clover,  and  calves  may  be  allowed  all 
the  straw  they  will  eat. 

RATION  No.  2 

Corn 6  Ibs. 

Cottonseed  Meal 3  Ibs. 

Legume  Hay 10  Ibs. 

Straw No  limit 

RATION  No.  3 

Kafir  or  Milo 12  Ibs. 

Cottonseed  Meal 2>£  Ibs. 

Silage 12  Ibs. 

RATION  No.  4 

Barley  or  Broken  Wheat 10  Ibs. 

Roots 10  Ibs. 

Alfalfa  Hay 6  Ibs. 

Coarse  Hay No  limit 

In  the  foregoing  rations  oil  meal  may  always  be  sub- 
stituted for  cottonseed  meal,  barley  or  kafir  for  corn, 
and  any  of  the  legume  hays  (alfalfa,  clover,  velvet  bean, 
cowpea,  soybean,  lespedeza  or  peanut  vine)  for  any 
other.  It  is  important  that  the  feed  of  the  growing  steer 
calf  contain  plenty  of  protein  and  mineral  matter,  hence 
such  feeds  as  clover,  alfalfa,  and  silage  should  be  given 
in  abundance  with  some  oats,  and  cottonseed  or  linseed 
meal.  Calves  that  are  to  be  fed  out  as  long  yearlings  or 
two-year-olds,  or  to  be  sold  as  stockers  at  a  year  old, 
may  be  fed  quite  largely  the  first  winter  on  cheap  rough- 
ages but  it  pays  to  give  small  amounts  of  concentrates 
in  order  to  keep  the  calves  growing  in  a  thrifty  condition. 

It  is  highly  important  that  calves  be  castrated  when 
young,  usually  at  six  to  eight  weeks  of  age,  because  there 
is  less  danger  of  checking  growth.  The  object  of  this  is 
to  prevent  reproduction,  to  increase  the  fattening  pro- 
pensity, to  make  the  animal  easier  to  handle,  and  to 

Page  Twenty-eight 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

improve  the  quality  of  the  meat.  One  of  the  greatest 
dangers  to  livestock  improvement  comes  from  permitting 
calves  with  only  one  or  two  crosses  of  improved  blood  to 
grow  into  bulls,  thus  replacing  well  bred  bulls  on  farms 
and  ranches.  In  order  to  insure  success  in  castration, 
one  must  carefully  wash  and  disinfect  the  hands  and 
instruments  before  operating  and  the  wound  after  opera- 
tion, must  make  a  large  free  opening  to  permit  good 
drainage  and  prevent  pus  accumulations  in  the  wound 
and  must  permit  the  calf  plenty  of  exercise  to  keep  the 
swelling  down.  Calves  turned  to  pasture  immediately 
after  the  operation  recover  more  quickly  than  those  con- 
fined to  the  stable,  since  the  chances  of  infection  are  less. 
If  calves  are  to  be  turned  off  as  veals  it  is  not  necessary 
to  castrate  and  they  should  be  pushed  along  with  skimmed 
milk,  flax-seed  meal  and  such  other  feeds  as  they  can 
learn  to  consume,  until  they  are  six  to  twelve  weeks  old 
and  fat  enough  to  market.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to 
see  that  the  skimmed  milk  is  sweet  and  not  fed  in  dirty 
receptacles,  as  the  digestive  system  of  the  calf  may  be 
deranged  and  scours  or  some  other  ailment  result.  Very 
few  calves  of  beef  breeding  are  killed  as  veals,  the  majority 
of  such  calves  coming  from  milking  herds. 

There  are  certain  general  principles 

The  Advantage     connected  with  the  feeding  of  cattle 

of  Young  that  each  farmer  should  bear  in  mind. 

Cattle  The  younger  the  animal  the  cheaper 

the  gain. 

The  older  the  feeder  the  easier  to  fatten. 

The  older  the  cattle  the  greater  the  proportion  of 
roughage  consumed. 

The  older  the  cattle  the  less  the  labor  and  shelter 
required. 

The  greater  the  abundance  of  pasture  and  cheap  feeds 
and  the  more  limited  the  fattening  feeds,  the  greater 
the  profit  in  marketing  cattle  as  stockers  and  feeders. 

Page  Twenty-nine 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

Older  cattle  digest  their  feed  less  closely  than  young 
cattle,  and  both  digest  whole  grain  less  closely  than 
ground  grain. 

The  more  limited  the  feeding  space  and  the  greater 
the  supply  of  concentrates,  the  greater  the  opportunity 
for  hogs  to  follow  cattle. 

One  pig  weighing  seventy  to  eighty  pounds  should  be 
allowed  for  three  steers. 

After  all  the  big  problem  in  feeding 
Essentials  of  is  to  satisfy  the  requirements  of  the 
a  Complete  animal,  and  a  study  of  the  require- 

Ration  ments  is  necessary  in  order  to  feed 

scientifically  and  economically.  Gen- 
erally speaking  the  needs  of  the  animal  may  be  grouped 
under  four  heads:  Growth,  energy,  fattening,  and  health 
regulation.  Growth  is  dependent  on  the  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances in  the  feed,  and  is  supplied  by  such  feeds  as  bran, 
milk,  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  gluten  feed,  cowpeas, 
soybeans,  alfalfa,  and  clover.  Feeds  which  supply 
energy  consist  mainly  of  carbohydrates  and  fats,  and  are 
furnished  by  corn,  barley,  wheat,  rye,  prairie  hay,  straw, 
fodders,  silage,  grass,  etc.  Fattening  powers  are  furnished 
by  the  same  feeds  as  those  that  supply  energy.  At  one 
time  it  was  supposed  that  a  simple  estimate  of  the  amounts 
of  these  feeds  that  would  furnish  a  well  balanced  diet 
was  sufficient  in  order  to  have  successful  results  in  feed- 
ing, but  it  is  now  known  that  there  are  certain  ingredients 
of  the  ration  that  have  only  a  slight  food  value,  but  that 
promote  the  utilization  of  the  feed  and  the  general  health 
of  the  animal.  Foremost  among  these  may  be  mentioned 
mineral  matter,  such  as  salt,  lime,  etc.,  which  is  known 
to  be  essential  to  successful  feeding,  but  there  is  another 
class  of  substances  known  as  vitamines  found  in  certain 
fats  and  proteins  that  promote  the  body  processes  in 
much  the  same  way  that  lubricating  oil  promotes  the 
work  of  the  tractor  without  contributing  to  the  energy 

Page  Thirty 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

that  runs  it.  This  is  found  in  the  hulls  of  cereals, 
cottonseed,  flaxseed,  timothy,  some  roots  and  alfalfa 
and  clover  hays.  Corn  is  notoriously  lacking  in  some 
of  these  substances,  and  animals  fed  corn  alone  get  the 
"burned-out"  appearance  due  to  the  lack  of  certain  of 
these  essential  compounds  in  the  feeds.  Except  for 
these  health  promoting  substances  however,  one  feed 
in  a  certain  class  may  be  substituted  for  another, 
according  to  cheapness  in  a  given  community,  as  bran 
for  linseed  meal  or  cottonseed  meal,  and  kafir  for  corn  or 
barley.  Because  of  this  possibility  of  substitution  it 
is  important  that  the  feeder  should  £.ady  feed  values, 
as  only  by  such  a  system  can  he  make  a  business-like 
profit  on  his  feeding  operations. 

One  of  the  most  important  feeds 
Silage  from    the  standpoint  of  health  pro- 

motion is  silage,  which  provides  the 
steer  and  growing  animal  with  succulent  green  feed  the 
year  around.  While  corn  is  pre-eminently  the  best  silage 
plant,  kafir,  sunflowers,  cane,  oats  and  peas,  alfalfa,  and 
soybeans  with  oats  make  a  very  desirable  product. 
The  principles  involved  in  ensiling  feeds  are  manifold: 
in  general  fermentations  change  the  sugars  of  the  plant 
to  acids,  and  preserve  the  total  food  value  more  perfectly 
than  any  other  method  of  feed  preservation.  If  there  is  a 
shortage  of  starches  and  sugars  as  in  alfalfa,  peas  and  beans, 
it  must  be  made  up  by  mixing  corn,  cane,  oats,  rye,  or  some 
similar  agent.  Molasses  has  been  used  satisfactorily  where 
cheap  enough,  being  sprinkled  over  the  green  legume  as 
it  goes  through  the  silage  cutter.  The  two  most  important 
provisions  in  silage  making  are  the  presence  of  these 
sugars  and  the  exclusion  of  air.  I  f  too  much  air  is  present, 
the  silage  putrefies,  hence  one  must  be  careful  to  tramp 
such  crops  as  oats  very  carefully  in  order  to  drive  the  air 
from  the  hollow  stems.  There  are  six  distinct  advantages 
from  ensiling  crops.  The  relative  expense  is  low  ($2.50 

Page  Thirty-one 


PROGRESSIVE      BEEF      CATTLE      RAISING 

to  $7.50  a  ton,  depending  on  investment  in  silo  and 
machinery  and  labor  conditions),  it  can  be  made  available 
for  any  season  of  the  year,  less  of  the  feed  value  is  wasted, 
it  is  eaten  with  practically  no  waste,  the  weather  handi- 
caps the  making  of  silage  less  than  putting  the  crop  up 
in  any  other  form,  it  makes  weeds  available  for  feed  if 
mixed  with  the  silage  crop,  and  it  can  be  stored  in  less 
space  than  the  same  feed  dry,  in  the  ratio  of  2  to  5  as 
far  as  food  value  is  concerned. 

The  requisites  of  a  good  silo  are: 
Requisites  of  i — airtight  walls;  2 — cylindrical  shape 
a  Good  Silo  (to  prevent  corners  which  fill  improp- 

erly) ;  3— smooth,  strong,  perpendicular 
walls  (to  prevent  air  pockets) ;  and  4 — depth  (to  give 
pressure  on  the  mass  of  fermenting  feed,  to  reduce  the 
percentage  loss  through  fermentation  of  top  layers  before 
they  can  be  fed,  and  to  reduce  the  loss  of  food  nutrients, 
which  are  greatest  in  upper  part) .  Silos  may  be  made  of 
staves,  brick,  hollow  tile,  concrete,  stone  or  steel.  Pit 
silos  with  cement  lining  and  concrete  curb  may  be  used 
in  arid  and  semi-arid  climates,  but  the  material  used 
anywhere  for  structure  depends  upon  local  conditions. 
See  illustration  opposite  page  42. 

The  diameter  of  a  silo  to  be  erected 
Silo  should  be  determined  from  the  number 

Capacities  of  animals  to  be  fed,  the  idea  being 

to  feed  about  two  inches  of  silage  off 
the  top  to  prevent  spoilage.  The  minimum  amount  to  be 
fed  daily,  to  attain  this  depth  of  feeding,  is  shown  in  the 
following  table,  allowing  twenty-five  pounds  per  head: 

Diameter  of  Silo  Minimum  Amount  of  Silage  Number  Head 

10  feet  520  pounds  21 

11  feet  625  pounds  25 
'12  feet                     745  pounds  30 

14  feet  1,015  pounds  41 

1 6  feet  1,325  pounds  53 

Page  Thirty-two 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


Diameter  of  Silo               Minimum  Amount  of  Silage           Number  Head 

1  8  feet                  i,  680  pounds                    67 
20  feet                  2,  075  pounds                   83 
22  feet                  2,  510  pounds                   100 
24  feet                  2,985  pounds                   uq 
26  feet                  3,505  pounds                  140 

The  following  table  shows  the  capacity  of  silos  of  differ- 
ent heights  and  diameters: 

Depth  of                                                     Diameter  of  silo,  in  feet 
silage,  feet                           10            12             14             16             18             20             22 

i  

2  

3  

tons 
6 
1.3 

21 

2   9 

tons 
i  .0 
i  .9 
3.0 
4.2 
5   4 
6.7 
8.1 
9.6 

I  I  .2 
12.8 
14-5 
16.3 

18.1 
20.  o 

22.  0 
24-0 
26.1 
28.3 
30.5 

32.8 
35-1 
37-5 
40.0 
42.5 
45.2 
47-7 
50.3 
53-0 
55-8 
58.5 
61.3 
64.1 
67.0 
69.8 

tons 

1  .2 
2.6 

4.2 
5.7 

7-4 
9.2 
ii  .  i 
13.  i 
15.2 
17-4 
19-7 

22.1 
24-6 
27-1 
29.9 

3^-7 
35-5 
38.5 
41-5 
44-6 
47-8 
51  -  I 
54-4 
57-8 
61.3 
64.8 
68.4 
72.  i 
75-8 
79-5 
83.4 
87.2 
91.  I 
95.  1 
99.  I 
103.2 
107.2 
111.3 
115.  5 
1  19.0 
123.8 
128.2 

tons 
1.6 
3-4 
5-3 
7-4 
9-7 

12.  O 

14-5 
17.1 
19.8 

22.7 

15.7 
28.9 
32.2 
35.5 

39.1 
42.7 
46.4 
50.3 
54-1 
58.3 
62.5 
66.7 
71.8 
75-5 
80.0 
84.6 
89-3 
94-  I 
98.9 
103.8 
108.8 
113.8 
118.9 
124.2 
129.3 
134-7 
I39-Q 
145-3 
150.8 
156.2 
161  .  7 
167.4 
172.9 
178.6 

tons 

2.1 

4-3 
6.7 
9-4 

12.2 
15-1 
18.3 
21.6 

25.1 

28.8 
32.6 
36.6 

40.7 
45-0 
4Q-4 
54-0 
58.8 
63.6 
68.6 
73-8 
79-  I 
84.5 
9O.O 
95-5 
101  .  3 
107.2 
113.2 
119.2 
125.4 
131.6 
137-9 
144.5 
150.8 
157-4 
163.9 
170.7 
177-4 
184.2 

191  -T- 
I98.I 
205.1 
212.  I 
219.2 
.    226.  1 

tons 
2.5 

J:| 

ii.  6 
15.0 
18.7 

22.6 

26.7 
31.0 

35-5 
40.3 
45.2 
50.2 
55-5 
61  .0 
66.7 
7^.5 
78.5 
84.8 
91  .  i 
97-5 
104.2 
i  ii  .  i 
118.0 
125.  i 
132.3 
139.6 
147-  1 
154-6 
162.3 
170.  i 
178.0 
186.0 
194-1 

2O2.  2 
2IO.6 
218.8 
227-2 
235-8 
244.3 
252.9 
261.6 
270.2 
270.  I 

tons 
3-1 

6.4 
IO.  I 

14.0 

18.2 

22.6 

17.3 
32.3 

37.6 
43-0 
48-7 
54-6 
60.7 
67.2 
73-8 
80.6 
87.7 
95.0 

102.6 
I  IO.2 
IlS.O 
126.  I 
134-4 
14^-7 
I5I-2 

160.0 
168.8 
177-8 
187.0 
196.3 
205.8 
215.2 
225.0 
234.8 
244-6 
254.8 
264.8 
275-0 
285.4 
295.6 
305.8 
316.3 
326.9 

117.6 

5  
b 

3-8 
4-7 
5-6 
6.7 
7-8 
8.8 

IO.  I 

II    3 

7  
8  
9  

1.0  

II  

I  2, 

13  

14 

12-5 
139 

15  

151 
16.8 
18    i 

16  

17 

18  
19 

19.6 

21     2 

20  

21 

22.8 

.     .    .      24  4 

22  

26.0 

23  

24 

27.  I 
29  5 

25  
26  
27  

28  
29  

31-3 
33-1 
34-9 

36.8 
38.7 

30  
3  i 

40  .  6 

31  
33  

34 

35  
36 

37.  .. 

38 

39 

40  
41 

42  
43  

44  .  . 

Page  Thirty-three 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


Depth  of 
silage,  feet 

Diameter  of  silo,  in  feet 
10            \i            14             16 

18 

2O 

22 

45 

tons       tons       tons         tons 
184  2 

tons 

tons 
288  o 

tons 
348   4 

46  

IQO.O 

240.  C) 

2Q7  .  I 

359-4 

47 

IQ5   8 

248    2 

306   2 

370  4 

48 

20  1   8 

381   4 

207  7 

263    2 

324   O 

3Q2    5 

?o.  .  . 

211.6 

270.8 

333.  Q 

4O3.  7 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  it  is  not  the  height  of  the 
silo  but  the  depth  of  silage  when  filling  is  completed  to 
which  reference  is  made.  Also  it  is  assumed  that  the 
silage  is  well  tramped  and  that  it  has  been  allowed  to 
settle  one  day,  after  which  the  silo  is  refilled.  When  the 
condition  of  the  corn  as  put  into  the  silo  is  average,  the 
above  table  should  be  used  as  given.  If  the  corn  is 
unusually  dry,  deduct  10  percent.  If  the  silo  is  filled 
rapidly  and  no  time  is  allowed  for  settling  also  deduct  10 
percent. 


Page  Thirty-four 


A  tile  silo  representative  of  one  of  the  many  types  of  permanent  construction 
adopted  throughout  the  country. 


W       I      r»ir*M        *: 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 
PART  V. 

Management  of  the  Beef  Herd 

There  are  three  systems  of  handling 
Three  Types  beef-bred  herds  in  common  usage  in 
of  Cattle  the  United  States.  The  straight  beef 

Farming  system  in  which  the  steers  are  grown 

out  as  cheaply  as  possible  is  adapted 
to  regions  where  pasture  is  plentiful  and  cheap  and  is 
practiced  more  widely  in  United  States  than  any  other 
method  of  beef  production.  The  dual  purpose  system  is 
used  more  commonly  in  the  general  farming  states 
although  up  to  the  present  it  is  not  more  popular  than 
the  straight  beef  system  if  the  numbers  practicing  it  be 
any  criterion.  In  this  system  the  cows  are  milked  and 
the  calves  are  raised  on  skimmed  milk  and  supplemental 
feeds.  The  dual  purpose  calves  as  a  rule  are  not  as 
economical  beef  producers  as  the  straight  beef  calves 
but  when  grown  out  and  fattened  they  frequently  make 
very  acceptable  beef.  The  dual  purpose  system  is  com- 
mendable only  when  adhered  to  properly,  and  is  likely 
to  be  quite  unsuccessful  if  it  is  attempted  to  turn  the 
beef  animals  into  a  dairy  herd.  The  baby  beef  system  is 
a  highly  specialized  method  and  is  adapted  to  such 
districts  as  the  cornbelt  where  there  is  a  good  supply 
of  feeds  for  fattening  and  sufficient  pasture  for  the 
summer  maintenance  of  the  breeding  cows  with  their 
calves.  While  it  requires  a  little  more  equipment  to 
handle  the  herd  the  best  market  prices  can  be  obtained 
in  baby  beef  as  well  as  in  the  dual  purpose  systems,  if 
the  calves  are  dropped  in  the  fall  and  finished  to  market 
in  the  summer  and  early  fall.  If  calves  are  dropped  in 
the  spring  they  should  come  late  in  February,  March 
or  early  April,  but  if  they  come  in  the  fall,  late  August, 
September  and  early  October  are  preferable.  The 

Page  Thirty-five 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

question  as  to  the  better  time  can  be  settled  only  by  a 
study  of  individual  farm  conditions,  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  equipment,  labor,  pasture  and  feed  supply. 

Cows  raised  for  the  production  of 
The  Maintenance  calves  only,  can  be  fed  very  cheaply 
of  the  during  the  biggest  portion  of  the  year 

Breeding  Herd  by  using  silage  and  dry  roughages 
combined  with  a  small  quantity  of 
such  feed  rich  in  protein  as  oilmeal  or  cottonseed  meal. 
If  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  is  available,  these  may  be  omitted 
except  during  the  periods  immediately  following  calving 
and  for  two  weeks  before  breeding.  Such  cows  do  not 
require  anything  more  than  open  shelter  except  at  calving 
time,  when  they  must  be  placed  separate  from  the  rest 
of  the  herd.  If  fall  calving  is  practiced  little  shelter 
for  the  cow  at  parturition  is  required,  but  if  the  calves 
come  in  February,  March  and  April,  both  dam  and  off- 
spring must  be  sheltered  from  the  extremes  that  some- 
times occur  at  that  season  of  the  year.  The  purchase 
of  feeds  for  breeding  cows  should  not  be  discouraged 
when  necessary,  since  a  suitable  purchase  may  be  more 
than  repaid  in  the  additional  growth  of  the  calf.  Suc- 
cessful cattle  raisers  must  grow  the  necessary  roughages 
however,  and  for  this  part  of  the  ration  can  well  adopt 
the  slogan  "Grow  all  you  feed  and  feed  all  you  grow." 
In  the  summer  the  cow  herd  will  be  maintained  largely  on 
pasture  but  if  the  pastures  are  short  supplements  must  be 
provided.  Silage  is  the  best  agent  for  this  but  if  not 
available  dry  roughage  such  as  hay  or  green  forage  crops 
should  be  provided.  After  harvest,  the  cows  can  be 
maintained  for  a  time  on  the  stubble  and  grass  growth 
in  the  fields,  in  fact  some  men  plant  clover  or  other  crops 
which  will  develop  after  harvest  for  this  very  purpose. 
In  the  South,  velvet  beans  may  be  utilized  for  the  pasture 
of  fall  and  early  winter  while  farther  north  the  stalk  fields 
are  available.  In  the  winter  hay  and  silage  will  provide 
the  main  dependence  but  when  protein  feeds  are  nec- 

Page  Thirty-six 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

essary  from  one  to  two  pounds  of  linseed  or  cottonseed 
cake  may  be  fed. 

The  fundamental  requirement  for 
The  Pasture  economical  beef  cattle  production  is 
plentiful  and  permanent  pasture.  In 
the  cornbelt,  bluegrass  pasture  has  proved  to  be  the 
most  satisfactory  permanent  proposition,  but  white 
clover  mixtures  make  a  little  richer  feed  of  it.  From  a 
temporary  standpoint  good  returns  may  be  obtained 
from  mixed  timothy  and  red  clover  while  in  shaded  areas 
orchard  grass  and  red  top  should  be  used.  In  the  range 
country  native  grasses  have  been  found  superior  to 
anything  seeded,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
overstock  them  or  both  variety  and  amount  of  herbage 
are  lost.  Considerable  success  has  been  found  in  parts 
of  Kansas  and  Oklahoma  by  restricting  the  pasturage  on 
certain  areas  and  seeding  the  remainder  in  order  to  renew 
the  growth.  The  farmer  who  feels  that  his  pasture  is 
deserving  of  a  little  investment  and  care  will  find  the 
distribution  of  suitable  fertilizers  will  promote  the 
growth  of  grass  very  decidedly.  Advice  as  to  the  kind 
of  fertilizer  or  the  amounts  should  be  obtained  from 
the  state  experiment  station  or  from  the  county  agri- 
cultural agent.  In  the  South,  Bermuda  grass  and  les- 
pedeza  have  been  found  highly  resistant  to  drouth  and 
their  use  in  southwestern  states  may  possibly  be  extended. 
The  farmer  must  remember  that  while  the  grasses  are 
natural  in  most  of  the  sections  of  America,  they  are 
not  spontaneous  under  heavy  systems  of  pasturage, 
and  discing,  seeding,  and  occasional  fertilizing  are 
necessary  to  obtain  the  greatest  returns. 

Hay  provides  the  winter  substitute 
The  Contents  of  for  pasturage  on  most  farms.  The 
the  Hay  Stack  successful  farmer  will  calculate  the 
amount  of  hay  he  needs  to  carry  his 
cattle  through  the  winter,  allowing  from  ten  to  sixteen 
pounds  per  head,  per  day,  depending  on  .the  availability  of 

Page  Thirty-seven 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


such  other  feeds  as  straw,  corn  stalks,  and  silage.  In 
order  to  calculate  this  it  is  desirable  for  him  to  know 
how  to  determine  the  number  of  tons  of  hay  in  the 
stack.  The  ordinary  method  of  determining  this  is  first 
to  find  the  volume  of  the  stack  in  cubic  feet  and  then  to 

Peaked  stack  Arerage  Btack.  Full,  stack 

IF  HEIGHT,  IS  THREE-FOURTHS  OF  WIDTH. 


Kew  hay   Did  hay 


New  hay 
2107 


Old  hay 
1857 


New  hay 
1903 


Old  hay 
1678 


IF  HEIGHT  EQUALS  WIDTH. 


Hew  hay  Old  hay 
2107      1857 


Mew  hay 
1903 


Old  hay 
1678 


New  hay 
1714 


Old  hay 
1529 


IF  HEIGHT  IS  ONE-FOURTH  GREATER  THAN  WIDTH. 


Hew  hay   Old  hay 
190?  ,      1678, 


New  hay 
1714 


Old  hay 
1529 


Old  hay 
1405 


To  determine  contents  of  hay  stack  multiply  length  by 
width  by  over  to  obtain  cubic  feet  and  divide  by  the  num- 
ber indicated  above  in  order  to  obtain  the  number  tons. 


Page  Thirty-eight 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

transform  it  to  tons.  To  determine  this  the  farmer  will 
measure  the  width  and  length  of  the  stack  and  then  get 
the  distance  from  the  ground  on  one  side  to  the  ground 
on  the  other  at  a  point  which  is  about  the  average  height 
of  the  stack.  Having  obtained  these  three  figures  for 
width  length  and  over,  they  are  multiplied  together  and 
divided  by  the  figures  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram 
depending  on  the  shape  of  the  stack  and  the  length  of 
time  the  hay  has  been  in  the  stack.  The  resultant 
figure  will  give  the  number  of  tons  of  hay  in  the  stack. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors 
Sanitation  on  in  success  with  beef  cattle  is  the 
the  Farm  health  of  the  herd.  The  cheapest  way 

in  the  long  run  to  safeguard  the  breed- 
ing animals  is  by  the  prevention  of  disease  and  sanitation. 
Every  cattleman  should  provide  himself  with  an  isolation 
shed  and  pen  to  which  sick  animals  can  be  taken.  This 
will  secure  privacy  and  rest  for  the  animals  and  in  addi- 
tion will  limit  the  spread  of  contagious  or  infectious 
disease.  After  a  diseased  animal  has  been  removed  from 
this  lot  all  straw  and  manure  not  exposed  to  the  sunlight 
and  wind  should  be  carefully  burned  and  the  shed^and 
feed  troughs  should  be  disinfected,  either  with  lime  or 
a  spray.  Special  care  should  be  taken  to  provide  bright, 
clean,  sanitary  quarters  for  calving  as  a  step  taken  in 
time  here  may  prevent  serious  losses  later  due  to 
hemorrhagic  septicemia,  scours,  sore  eyes,  snuffles,  and 
various  other  calf  diseases.  Feed  troughs,  water  tanks, 
and  other  places  where  cattle  commonly  come  in  contact 
with  each  other  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and 
should  be  disinfected  frequently. 

f 

Page  Thirty-mnt 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

Some   of   the   commonest   diseases 
Cattle  which  American   cattlemen    have  to 

Diseases  face  are  lump  jaw,  blackleg,  contagious 

abortion,  foot  and  mouth  disease,  foot 
rot,  hemorrhagic  septicemia  and  tuberculosis,  while  the 
following  are  the  commonest  parasites  which  have  to  be 
combated ;  Texas  fever  tick,  lice,  screw  worms,  ox  warble 
and  mange. 

LUMP  JAW.  Lump  jaw  is  a  chronic  non-infectious 
disease  that  affects  the  jaws  of  cattle  and  the  udders  of 
swine.  It  is  caused  by  a  fungus  that  is  frequently  found 
on  barley  beards,  oat  stubble  and  various  grasses,  although 
it  does  not  grow  outside  of  the  animal  body.  It  appears 
as  a  hard  tumor-like  swelling  on  the  jaw  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  disease,  but  later  becomes  ulcerated  from 
the  inside,  causing  slobbering  and  difficulty  in  chewing. 
The  animal  becomes  emaciated  and  frequently  starves 
to  death.  The  most  satisfactory  way  to  handle  the 
animal  is  to  begin  fattening  it  at  the  first  signs  of  disease 
and  ship  to  market  before  the  affection  becomes  too 
marked.  Such  animals  are  subjected  to  rigid  examination 
after  death  and  if  the  disease  is  localized  in  the  head  the 
animal  is  passed  as  fit  for  food. 

BLACKLEG.  This  is  a  highly  contagious  disease  that 
affects  cattle  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-four 
months.  It  is  usually  fatal  in  the  course  of  twelve  to 
thirty-six  hours  after  the  animal  first  shows  signs  of 
sickness.  However,  the  animal  may  have  been  infected 
from  three  to  five  days  previous  to  the  first  symptoms. 
The  animal  shows  a  high  fever,  loss  of  appetite  and  great 
depression,  while  it  usually  stops  chewing  its  cud  in  the 
very  earliest  stages.  Swellings  appear  over  the  heavily 
muscled  parts  of  the  body  and  if  one  strokes  the  skin  in 
these  parts  a  distinct  crackling  is  heard  and  felt.  There 
is  no  satisfactory  remedy  and  the  best  method  is  preven- 

Paie  Forty 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

tive  treatment  by  means  of  vaccination.    The  losses 
following  this  are  less  than  one-half  of  i  percent. 

CONTAGIOUS  ABORTION.  This  is  a  chronic  and  highly 
insidious  disease  that  is  confined  to  the  organs  of  repro- 
duction and  is  probably  the  most  widely  spread  disease 
in  cattle.  It  is  caused  by  a  specific  germ  which  is  more 
likely  to  infect  heifers  than  cows  and  which  seldom  affects 
the  bull.  During  the  early  months  after  breeding  the 
animal  appears  normal  but  the  calf  may  be  born  from 
three  to  five  months  prematurely.  Some  cows  may  be- 
come "carriers"  of  the  disease  without  themselves  being 
sick.  Skilled  veterinarians  are  required  to  recognize 
these  animals  by  means  of  blood  tests.  The  only  treat- 
ment possible  is  preventive.  Immediately  after  the 
animal  aborts  all  of  the  litter  should  be  disposed  of  by 
burning  and  the  stable  floor  should  be  disinfected  with  a 
strong  liquid.  The  cow  should  be  douched  with  a  i  per- 
cent solution  of  salt  at  blood  temperature  to  prevent  the 
accumulation  of  pus.  Some  investigators  at  present  urge 
the  use  of  a  vaccine,  but  this  has  not  yet  been  standardized. 

FOOT-AND-MOUTH-DISEASE.  Although  this  disease  is 
not  common  in  America,  there  have  been  several  serious 
scourges  from  it,  the  last  in  the  years  1914-15.  It  affects 
cattle  worse  than  other  stock  and  the  mortality  ranges 
from  i  to  3  percent.  The  disease  opens  with  a  moderate 
fever  and  the  appearance  of  blisters  in  the  mouth  and 
between  the  hoofs.  A  profuse  flow  of  saliva  is  stimulated 
which  hangs  from  the  mouth  in  viscid  ropes.  No  attempt 
is  made  to  treat  the  disease  in  the  United  States  and 
infected  animals  are  immediately  slaughtered. 

FOOT  ROT.  Cattle  that  are  forced  to  stand  in  filthy 
lots  occasionally  suffer  from  a  contagious  hoof  disease 
known  as  foot  rot.  The  animals  become  lame,  develop 
a  hot  and  painful  swelling  around  the  hoof  and  lose  their 
appetite  and  flesh.  The  "proud  flesh"  which  appears 
must  be  trimmed  away,  the  pus  tracts  drained  and  a  dis- 

Page  Forty-one 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

infectant  applied.  In  cattle  the  best  remedy  is  pine  tar 
held  in  place  by  a  bandage  passed  between  the  claws  and 
tied  around  the  pastern. 

HEMORRHAGIC  SEPTICEMIA.  This  disease  runs  a  short 
course  in  cattle  that  frequently  ends  in  death  and  affects 
calves  more  commonly  than  older  animals.  The  method 
of  infection  is  not  known  although  cattle  on  pasture  are 
less  likely  to  be  affected  than  those  under  confinement. 
The  animals  refuse  feed,  exhibit  a  severe  fever,  show 
difficulty  in  breathing  and  develop  swellings  in  the  throat 
and  brisket.  When  the  intestines  are  affected  the  animals 
show  signs  of  colic  and  pass  bloody  manure.  Once  the 
disease  is  developed  medicines  are  useless,  hence  efforts 
are  directed  toward  preventing  the  spread  to  other 
animals.  All  unaffected  animals  should  be  removed  to 
fresh  quarters  and  vaccinated,  and  the  infected  buildings 
and  lots  disinfected. 

TUBERCULOSIS.  This  is  one  of  the  most  serious  diseases 
affecting  cattle  because  of  the  possibility  of  its  transmis- 
sion to  man.  It  is  readily  transmitted  to  hogs  following 
cattle,  in  many  cases  as  high  as  25  percent  being  rendered 
unfit  for  food.  The  disease  is  so  named  because  small 
tubercles  form  in  the  internal  organs.  Infection  is 
ususally  spread  by  eating  food  or  drinking  fluids  con- 
taminated by  the  discharges  from  infected  animals. 
Frequently  animals  severely  afflicted  with  the  disease 
show  no  signs  of  it  externally.  If  the  lungs  are  affected 
there  may  be  a  cough  and  difficulty  in  breathing,  while 
if  the  intestines  are  involved,  a  chronic  diarrhea  is  present. 
The  common  test  for  the  presence  of  tuberculosis  is  the 
injection  test  with  tuberculin.  The  animal  shows  a 
marked  rise  in  temperature  a  few  hours  after  injection  if 
affected  with  the  disease.  There  are  also  tests  used 
known  as  the  eye  test  and  the  tail  test.  The  former,  or 
opthalmic  test,  consists  of  placing  a  small  disc  or  tablet 
of  concentrated  tuberculin  under  the  upper  lid  of  the  eye 

Page  Forty-two 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

and  let  it  dissolve.  In  four,  five  or  six  hours  later  another 
tablet  is  put  in  the  same  eye.  If  the  animal  has  tuber- 
culosis the  water  runs  from  the  eye  very  freely  and  in  a 
short  time  this  water  changes  into  pus.  The  discharge 
continues  for  a  few  hours,  after  which  the  eye  clears  up 
and  returns  to  its  former  condition.  The  tail  or  intra- 
dermal  test  consists  of  the  injection  of  a  drop  of  tuber- 
culin into  the  fold  on  the  under  part  of  the  tail  near  the 
root.  This  injection  is  made  into  the  skin  but  not 
through  it.  If  the  animal  is  affected  with  tuberculosis 
a  round  swelling,  ranging  from  three-eighths  inch  to  an 
inch  in  diameter  will  appear  in  about  72  hours.  If  no 
swelling  appears  the  animal  is  free  of  the  disease.  Treat- 
ment is  unsatisfactory  and  the  only  practicable  method 
known  is  the  preventive  one  which  removes  all  infected 
animals  and  utilizes  sanitary  methods.  In  1921  at  10 
Armour  plants  there  were  4,728  cattle  retained  by  the 
Government  for  further  inspection  because  of  suspected 
tuberculosis.  Of  this  number,  76.48  percent  were  con- 
demned as  inedible.  In  1920  there  were  6,577  cattle 
retained  at  these  same  10  plants,  of  which  76.73  percent 
were  condemned  as  inedible. 

TEXAS  FEVER  TICK.  Only  a  few  years  ago  this  pest 
was  prevalent  throughout  the  southern  states,  but  is 
being  rapidly  eradicated  by  means  of  the  quarantine. 
In  early  1922  there  were  only  206,015  square  miles  of  terri- 
tory under  quarantine  as  compared  with  735,768  square 
miles  placed  under  quarantine  at  the  time  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Texas  fever  quarantine  line  in  i8qi.  The  ill 
effects  of  the  tick  come  through  the  injury  to  the  cattle  in 
sucking  their  blood  and  infecting  them  with  the  germs 
of  a  disease  that  results  in  high  fever  and  occasionally 
death.  The  vitality  of  most  infected  animals  is  so  low 
that  they  are  not  profitable  to  handle.  The  most  suc- 
cessful means  of  getting  rid  of  the  tick  is  by  periodic 
dipping. 

Page  Forty-three 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

CATTLE  LICE.  These  parasites  do  the  most  damage  in 
the  winter  months  and  are  more  likely  to  infect  thin  cattle 
than  fleshy  ones.  They  can  best  be  disposed  of  by  dipping 
in  the  fall  before  cold  weather  sets  in,  followed  by  a  second 
dipping  seven  to  ten  days  later  to  kill  any  lice  hatching 
after  the  first  treatment. 

SCREW  WORMS.  During  hot  weather  screw  worms 
may  appear  in  wounds,  cuts  or  sores,  as  a  result  of  eggs 
laid  in  these  parts  by  a  fly.  The  most  effective  treatment 
is  to  open  the  wounds,  to  wash  them  with  gasoline,  and  to 
daub  them  with  pine  tar. 

WARBLES.  The  ox  warble  is  a  grub  which  develops 
under  the  skin  in  late  winter  or  early  spring,  bores  a  hole 
through  it,  and  drops  to  the  ground  where  it  hatches  into 
a  fly.  There  are  no  preventive  measures  known  but  the 
grubs  ready  to  drop  from  the  animal  should  be  squeezed 
out  and  destroyed  and  those  not  quite  ready  to  emerge 
should  be  dislodged  with  a  sharp  knife. 

MANGE.  Mange  is  caused  by  a  small  mite  that  attacks 
the  skin,  causing  it  to  become  scurvy.  It  spreads  from 
one  animal  to  another  by  contact  and  can  be  remedied 
by  dipping  or  spraying. 


Pate  Forty-four 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

RING  WORM.  This  disease  is  quite  similar  to  mange 
but  causes  circular  patches  on  the  skin  instead  of  a  general 
infection.  It  is  most  common  during  the  winter  and 
spring  and  is  usually  found  on  the  heads  and  necks, 
although  it  may  affect  any  part  of  the  body.  It  causes 
severe  itching  and  is  remedied  with  iodine  and  nitrate 
of  mercury  ointment.  Stables  should  be  disinfected. 

As  a  general  practice  it  is  advisable 
The  Cow  and  to  provide  quarters  for  calving  even 
Her  Calf  though  it  may  not  be  necessary  to 

use  them  ordinarily.  The  average 
breeding  cow  needs  little  assistance  if  she  is  in  a  vigorous, 
healthy  condition,  nor  do  most  calves,  but  there  are  many 
that  die  which  would  have  lived  if  assistance  had  been 
available  at  the  proper  time.  As  soon  as  the  calf  is  born 
all  membranes  should  be  removed  from  the  mouth  and 
nose  and  if  the  calf  is  not  strong,  a  slight  pull  on  the  tongue 
and  pressure  in  the  ribs  may  stimulate  breathing.  The 
cow  should  be  allowed  to  dry  the  calf  herself  and  to  give 
it  its  first  care,  although  the  calf  may  need  assistance  the 
first  time  to  find  the  udder.  The  calf  should  always 
receive  the  first  milk  from  the  udder  unless  the  cow  is 
feverish  and  her  udder  inflamed,  since  it  acts  as  a  mild 
purgative.  Clean,  sanitary  quarters  are  a  distinct  asset 
to  any  breeding  farm. 

For  convenience  in  determining  the 
Gestation  time  the  cow  is  due  to  calve,  the  time 

Table  of  service  being  known,  a  gestation 

table  is  given  on  page  46,  by  the  use  of 
which  it  is  very  easy  to  determine  the  approximate  calving 
date.  It  will  assist  in  keeping  accurate  breeding  records. 


Page  Forty-five 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


Gestation  Table  for  Cows  (283  Days) 

EXPLANATION:  Find  date  cow  was  bred  in  first  column  and  month  bred  in  top 
line.  The  date  in  column  below  opposite  date  bred  will  be  the  time  at  which 
the  cow  is  due  to  calve. 


Mo. 
Bred 

JAN.  FEB.  MAR.  APR.  MAY  JUNE  JULY  AUG.  SEPT.  OCT.  Nov.  DEC. 

•SB* 

Bred 

Date  Due  to  Calve 

OCT. 

Nov. 

DEC. 

JAN. 

FEB. 

MAR. 

APR. 

MAY 

JUNE 

JULY 

AUG. 

SEPT. 

, 

ii 

ii 

Q 

Q 

8 

1  1 

IO 

ii 

n 

1  1 

1  1 

IO 

i 

11 

ii 

10 

IO 

q 

ii 

ii 

ii 

ii 

11 

ii 

n 

3 

13 

13 

II 

II 

IO 

13 

11 

13 

13 

13 

13 

ii 

4 

14 

14 

11 

11 

1  1 

14 

13 

14 

14 

14 

14 

13 

5 

i  ^ 

15 

13 

13 

11 

15 

14 

15 

15 

15 

15 

14 

6 

16 

16 

14 

14 

13 

16 

15 

16 

It 

16 

16 

15 

7 

17 

17 

15 

15 

14 

17 

16 

17 

17 

17 

17 

16 

8 

18 

18 

16 

16 

15 

18 

17 

ii 

18 

18 

It 

17 

Q 

IQ 

IQ 

17 

17 

16 

IQ 

18 

IQ 

IQ 

IQ 

IQ 

18 

10 

10 

IO 

18 

18 

17 

10 

IQ 

IO 

10 

10 

10 

IQ 

11 

ii 

ii 

IQ 

IQ 

18 

ii 

10 

11 

ii 

ii 

ii 

10 

11 

11 

11 

10 

10 

IQ 

11 

ii 

11 

11 

11 

li 

ii 

13 

23 

23 

ii 

ii 

10 

23 

11 

23 

23 

23 

23 

11 

14 

14 

24 

11 

11 

ii 

24 

23 

14 

24 

24 

24 

23 

X 

17 

11 

27 

25 

16 

27 

23 
14 
25 

24 
25 

11 
23 
24 

2 

27 

24 

li 

2 

27 

25 

16 

17 

25 
16 
27 

25 

16 
27 

24 

2 

18 

18 

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16 

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28 

18 

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18 

27 

IQ 

2Q 

IQ 

27 

27 

26 

2Q 

18 

2Q 

iq 

iq 

iq 

18 

10 
ii 
11 

30 

KT  3I 

Nov.  i 

Dec'? 

1 

18 
iq 
30 

18 

iq 
30 

17 
18 
Mar.  i 

30 

Apr.  i 

2Q 

30 

May  i 

30 

.  31 
June  i 

July  i 
1 

30 
.   31 
Aug.  i 

30 

Sept'.! 

iq 

^  3° 
Oct.  i 

23 

i 

3 

31 

31 

i 

i 

i 

i 

3 

i 

1 

i 

24 

3 

4 

Jan'i 

Feb  i 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

3 

3 

3 

25 
16 

4 
5 

5 
6 

3 

3 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 
6 

4 
5 

4 
5 

4 
5 

27 

6 

7 

4 

4 

6 

6 

6 

6 

7 

6 

6 

6 

28 

7 

8 

5 

5 

7 

7 

7 

7 

8 

7 

7 

7 

iq 

8 

6 

6 

8 

8 

8 

8 

Q 

8 

8 

8 

30 

q 

7 

7 

Q 

q 

q 

q 

10 

q 

q 

q 

10 

8 

10 

IO 

10 

10 

10 

Page  Forty-fix 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 
PART  VI 

The  Cattle  Industry 

As  a  producer  of  beef  the  United 
The  United  States  leads  the  world.  The  Census 

States  Position     of  January  i,  1920,  reports  66,652,559 
in  Beef  cattle,  of  which  35,424,458  were  beef 

Production  animals.    These  exceeded  the  nearest 

competitive  beef  country  by  44  per- 
cent. For  the  present,  the  relative  figures  on  cattle, 
including  milk  and  draft  animals  as  well  as  beef,  were 
given  as  follows  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture : 

India 142,567,000 

United  States 66,653,000 

Brazil 37,500,000 

Argentina 27,392,000 

Germany 16,904,000 

France 12,374,000 

Australia 1 1 ,040,000 

Canada 9,477,000 

Uruguay 7,803,000 

Not  all  these  countries  are  meat  surplus  countries, 
however,  as  many  of  them  consume  more  than  they  pro- 
duce. The  eight  principal  meat  export  countries  are 
Argentina,  United  States,  Australia,  Uruguay,  New  Zea- 
land, Brazil,  Canada,  and  British  South  Africa. 

During  the  war  America  exported 
The  American  large  quantities  of  beef  which  per- 
Beef  Export  mitted  high  prices  to  the  producer. 
Trade  During  the  five  years  1910-1914  the 

average  exports  of  beef  products 
totaled  80,000,000  pounds,  while  during  the  five  years 

Page  h'orty-seven 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

of  war,  10,15-1919,  the  average  exports  were  421,000,000 
pounds,  an  increase  of  approximately  526  percent. 

During  times  of  peace  the  export  trade  is  a  very  minor 
factor  in  supporting  beef  prices.  In  the  past  14  years, 
according  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  we 
have  exported  the  following  percentage  of  our  annual 

beef  Crop:                                 Total  beef  Total  beef  Percent  beef 

production                    exports  exported 

1907 7,31O,OOO,OOO  352,000,000  4.80 

1908 6,676,000,000  228,000,000  3  .41 

1909 7,071,000,000  163,000,000  2.03 

1910 7,323,000,000  110,000,000  1.50 

1911 7,036,000,000  92,000,000  i .  30 

1911 6,509,000,000  56,000,000  .86 

1913 5,913,000,000  47,000,000  .79 

1914 5,639,000,000  95,000,000  '1.68 

1915 5,816,000,000  399,000,000  6.86 

1916 6,118,000,000  287,000,000  4.69 

1917 6,686,000,000  376,000,000  5 .62 

1918 7,641,000,000  728,000,000  Q-53 

1919 6,571,000,000  314,000,000  4.78 

1 920 6, 1 1 1 ,000,000  1 64,000,000  2 . 68 

The  war  increased  the  percentage  of  our  beef  exports 
almost  six  times,  the  average  for  the  first  four  years 
preceding  the  war  being  i .  1 6  percent,  while  for  the  four 
war  years  it  was  6.67  percent.  If  one  compares  the 
calendar  years  1918,  1919  and  1920,  one  factor  in  the 
dropping  beef  prices  of  that  period  becomes  apparent,  for 
exports  of  728,000,000  pounds  in  1918  drop  to  3 14,000,000 
pounds  in  1919,  and  164,000,000  pounds  in  1920.  It  is 
difficult  to  say  just  where  the  percentage  of  exports 
becomes  large  enough  to  be  important,  economic  and 
political  conditions  having  greater  effect  on  prices  per- 
haps than  any  mathematical  relation. 

In  1840  the  center  of  production 
of  all  cattle  was  about  ten  miles 

*>uth  of  SPencer'  West  Virginia< 
and  about  50  miles  north  of  Charles- 
ton, the  capital.  At  this  time  no  distinction  was  made 
in  the  census  between  milk  and  "other"  cattle.  Dur- 

Poge  Forty-eight 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

ing  the  succeeding  years  the  changes  in  the  center  of  beef 
cattle,  dairy  cattle  and  all  cattle  were  as  follows  : 

Beef  Cattle  Dairy  Cattle  All  Cattle 

1850     Richmond,  Ky.         Crown  Center,  O.      Morehead,  Ky. 
1860     Lowes,  Ky.  Independence,  Ky.    Henderson,  Ky. 

1870     Bixby,  Mo.  Liberty,  Ind.  Fairfield,  111. 

1880     Vienna,  Mo.  Greencastle,  Ind.       Greenville,  111. 

1890     Creighton,  Mo.          Oakland,  111.  Jefferson  City,  Mo. 

1900     Waverly,  Kan.  Urbana,  111.  Lamonte,  Mo. 

1910     Eskridge,  Kan.          Clinton,  111.  Marshall,  Mo. 

1920     Ellsworth,  Kan.         London  Mills,  111.      Carrollton,  Mo. 

All  of  these  locations  are  approximate  as  the  center  is 
sometimes  ten  miles  or  more  distant  from  these  towns. 

Just  how  much  dependence  can  be  placed  on  the  census 
figures  for  "other  cattle"  as  a  measure  of  beef  cattle  is 
not  known.  "Other  cattle"  include  that  portion  of  the 
dairy  population  not  actually  producing  milk  at  the  time 
census  figures  are  collected,  while  many  cows  of  beef 
breeding  that  were  being  milked  at  that  time  are  probably 
always  included  under  dairy  cattle.  Since  there  seems 
to  be  no  way  of  compensating  for  these  errors,  the  fore- 
going centers  have  been  calculated  by  taking  the  census 
figures  at  their  face  value. 

The  following  figures  show  the  total 
The  Consump-  slaughter  of  beef  and  veal  in  the  United 
tion  of  Beef  States  and  the  per  capita  consumption 

of  each  : 

Slaughter  Per  capita  consumption 

Veal  Ibs. 


7,310,000,000  2,000,000  79.7  7.1 

1908  6,676,000,000  605,000,000  72.4  6.8 

1909  7,071,000,000  684,000,000  76.2  7.5 

1910  7,323,000,000  687,000,000  78.1  7.4 

1911  7,036,000,000  657,000,000  73  .9  7.0 

1912  6,509,000,000  668,000,000  67.5  7.0 

1913  5,913,000,000  488,000,000  60.8  5.0 

1914  5,639,000,000  433,000,000  58.9  4.4 

1915  5,816,000,000  428,000,000  55.6  4.3 

1916  6,118,000,000  536,000,000  58.1  5.3 

1917  6,686,000,000  662,000,000  62.0  6.5 

1918  7,641,000,000  726,000,000  67.8  7.0 

1919  6,571,000,000  851,000,000  60.0  8.1 

1920  6,111,000,000  909,000,000  56.4  8.5 

Page  Forty-nine 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


Recent  statistics  are  not  available  for  the  per  capita 
consumption  of  beef  in  foreign  countries,  but  in  the 
United  Kingdom  the  average  consumption  from  1891- 
iqo8  ranged  from  55  to  60  pounds;  Canada  averaged  54 
pounds  in  iqoo  and  61  pounds  in  iqio;  France  43  pounds 
in  1904;  and  Germany's  average  ranged  from  38.6  to  45 
pounds  from  1904  to  1913.  Following  is  the  per  capita 
consumption  of  all  meat  in  1 8  foreign  countries,  these 
being  the  latest  available  statistics: 


Year  Lbs. 

Australia 1902  262 

New  Zealand 1902  212 

Argentina 1899  139 

Canada IQIO  138 

Cuba 1906  123 

United  Kingdom. . .  1906  1 18 

Germany 1913  112 

France 1904  78 

Denmark 1902  76 


Year  Lbs. 

Switzerland 1899  75 

Belgium 1902  71 

Netherlands 1902  70 

Greece 1899  68 

Norway 1902  61 

Sweden 1902  61 

Spain 1890  48 

Italy 1901  45 

Portugal 1899  43 


Page  Fifty 


Tubercular  cow   apparently  healthy   in  appearance  which  reacted  to  the  tuberculin 
test  and  was  found  diseased  on  killing.    (See  page  42.) 


A  steer  showing  a  pronounced  case  of  lump  jaw.    (See  page  40.) 


Page  Fifty-one 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


PART  VII 

Cattle  Prices 

The  market  has  a  very  intimate 
The  Relation  relation  to  beef  cattle  production. 
of  the  Market  The  effects  are  not  immediate  but  are 
to  the  Feeding  reflected  from  four  to  twelve  months 
Business  later.  High  prices  bring  high  receipts 

at  the  cattle  markets,  but  the  producer 
saves  enough  females  to  enlarge  his  marketing  possibilities 
for  the  next  year  or  two.  On  the  other  hand,  lowering 
prices  tend  to  fall  still  lower  because  the  producer  sees 
no  hope  ahead  for  expansion  and  turns  females  that  should 
be  breeding  onto  a  market  already  depressed.  The  most 
successful  feeders  have  had  the  best  results  by  going  just 
contrary  to  inclination  of  the  average  cattleman,  since 
conditions  are  nearly  always  reversed  by  the  time  the 
next  crop  of  animals  can  be  made  marketable.  Such  a 
feeder  makes  cattle  the  medium  for  marketing  certain 
portions  of  the  farm's  rough  products  yearly  and  thereby 
makes  feeding  a  permanent  business.  When  returns 
from  such  a  system  are  considered  over  a  period  of  years 
it  will  be  found  that  the  losses  of  one  year  are  absorbed 
by  the  profits  of  another,  with  a  reasonable  margin  for 
the  feeder,  while  his  land  will  have  been  permanently 
upbuilded  by  the  system.  Beef  cattle  feeding  is  operated 
on  as  narrow  a  margin  as  obtains  in  any  farm  operation 
and  very  slight  fluctuations  in  prices  may  reduce  profits 
to  losses  or  vice  versa.  Since  such  fluctuations  exist 
it  is  very  easy  for  men  to  lose  badly  or  to  make  large  gains, 
but  since  they  are  difficult  to  foresee,  there  are  very  few 
cattle  speculators  except  those  close  to  market  that  have 
been  financially  successful.  The  only  real  winners  in  the 
beef  cattle  business  are  those  who  have  made  it  an  integral 
part  of  their  farming  operation,  year  in  and  year  out. 

Page  Fifty-two 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

Price  fluctuations  provide  the  sorest 
Why  Markets  spots  in  marketing  that  the  producer 
Fluctuate  faces.  It  has  never  seemed  logical  to 

him  that  a  steer  worth  one  price  today 
may  be  worth  a  different  price  a  week  from  today  when  the 
costs  of  the  feeds  and  labor  as  he  has  handled  them,  have 
not  varied.  Furthermore  the  food  value  of  the  meat  from 
the  steer  is  approximately  the  same  during  a  period  of 
several  weeks  in  the  finishing  of  beef  animals.  From  the 
producer's  viewpoint  these  ideas  seem  perfectly  proper, 
but  producers  should  take  into  account  the  fact  that 
the  main  factor  in  meat  prices  is  the  existence  of  a  ready 
market.  Farm  produce,  except  fruits  and  vegetables,  does 
not  fluctuate  like  finished  beef  products,  because  it  is  not 
quickly  perishable.  Once  it  is  put  into  a  perishable  form, 
however,  farmers  and  feeders  must  take  chances  with 
others.  Beef  is  just  such  a  perishable  article  and  unless 
the  market  can  move  out  of  the  coolers  and  refrigerators 
a  sufficiently  steady  stream  of  meat  to  make  place  for  that 
incoming  from  the  daily  kill  of  cattle,  slaughter  at  the 
prices  being  currently  paid  becomes  almost  impossible. 
Lowered  prices  do  two  things,  they  give  a  slight  margin 
which  will  help  pay  the  charges  on  such  beef  as  has  to  be 
stored  for  a  few  days,  and  they  cause  the  producer  to  hold 
up  shipments  until  a  more  favorable  price  may  be  received, 
thereby  permitting  the  market  to  work  off  excess  supplies. 
As  long  as  the  consumer  varies  in  the  amount  of  meat  he 
eats  daily,  thereby  affecting  the  buying  power  of  the 
retailer,  just  so  long  will  there  be  sudden  fluctuations  in 
the  prices  of  beef. 

There  are  two  general  classes  of 

The  Two  Classes     price  fluctuations.  One  class  is  ex- 
of  Price  pressed  as  trends,  due  to  causes  that 

Fluctuations  affect  prices  over  a  considerable  period 

of  time,  while  the  other  is  the  day  to 
day  fluctuation  that  results  from  the  variations  in  receipts 
on  the  market,  variations  in  the  ability  of 'the  markets  to 

Page  Fifty-three 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

move  the  beef  on  hand,  and  the  competition  of  other 
meats  and  foods  for  the  favor  of  the  family  pocketbook. 
Illustrations  of  factors  causing  general  trends  in  prices 
are  the  seasonal  changes  in  the  meat  appetite  of  the 
buying  public,  the  seasonal  variations  in  receipts,  the 
influence  of  the  export  trade,  and  such  unusual  occurrences 
as  the  recent  war.  The  most  important  factor  of  all  of  these 
is  the  ability  to  sell  beef  and  this  is  almost  perfectly  correlated 
with  the  volume  of  beef  on  hand  as  related  to  volume  of  busi- 
ness, and  is  entirely  unrelated  to  the  cost  of  production  of 
the  cattle. 

One  of  the  chief  factors  contributing 
Seasonal  to  low  prices  for  the  average,  feeder  is 

Variations  the  tendency  for  every  cattleman  to 

in  Price  and  market  his  steers  in  the  period  Novem- 
W eight  ber  to  April.  The  chart  facing  page 

55  presents  a  study  of  the  prices  of 
native  beef  on  the  Chicago  market  over  a  period  of  twenty 
years  and  shows  that  prices  for  this  class  of  cattle  are  above 
the  average  of  the  year  from  April  to  mid-October,  and  be- 
low the  average  for  the  remainder  of  the  year.  Of  course 
there  have  been  years  in  which  this  was  not  true,  but  it 
represents  the  average  condition  over  this  time.  The 
deviations  below  the  average  price  for  the  year  are  greatest 
in  January,  February,  June,  November  and  December, 
while  the  least  occurs  in  the  period  July  to  October. 
Furthermore,  in  the  November  to  May  period,  the 
monthly  average  price  runs  nearer  the  bottom  of  the 
deviations  from  the  average  annual  price,  while  in  the 
period  May  to  October,  the  monthly  average  runs  nearer 
the  top  of  the  deviations  from  the  average  annual  price. 
This  means  that  the  man  who  markets  in  the  latter  period 
not  only  gets  better  prices  for  his  stock,  but  that  he  is 
much  more  likely  to  top  the  market,  simply  because  the 
monthly  average  tends  to  run  nearer  there. 

Page  Fifty-four 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

For  a  period  of  eight  years,  the  average  monthly  varia- 
tion in  the  market  weights  of  cattle  at  the  Chicago 
market,  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Lbs.  Lbs. 

January 987        July 983 

February 992        August 980 

March 985        September 957 

April 1009        October 951 

May 996        November 965 

June 1005        December 969 

It  will  be  seen  that  April  and  June  are  the  periods  for 
heavy  cattle,  when  the  winter  feeding  season  is  closing, 
while  September  and  October  have  the  light  cattle,  due 
to  the  run  of  feeders  and  grass  stock.  The  average  weight 
for  the  eight  years  is  981  Ibs. 

Because  prices  are  higher  at  this 
The  Problem  of  time  does  not  necessarily  mean  that 
Marketing  Beef  the  farmer  feeder  will  get  greater 
in  All  Seasons  profits.  Beef  production  depends  on 
the  annual  cycle  of  the  year,  since 
steers  fatten  on  the  crops  that  mature  during  the  year, 
but  meat  is  eaten  on  the  daily  cycle  based  on  the  frequency 
with  which  man  gets  hungry.  It  therefore  happens  that 
the  bulk  of  the  cattle  come  on  the  market  in  the  months 
September  to  February,  after  they  have  eaten  the  crops  of 
the  preceding  season.  Man's  appetite  runs  throughout 
the  year,  however,  and  if  he  is  to  be  assured  a  supply  of 
meat  at  all  times,  someone  must  carry  the  cost  of  holding 
either  animals  or  meat  over  to  the  leaner  months.  If  the 
animal  is  killed  the  market  must  absorb  the  cost  of  han- 
dling or  storing ;  if  it  is  held  over  for  better  prices  the  feeder 
must  pay  this  cost  in  feed,  equipment  and  maintenance. 
It  therefore  becomes  an  individual  problem  for  each  farmer 
to  determine,  whether  the  additional  costs  of  carrying  his 

Page  Fifty-five 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

cattle  over  will  be  more  than  the  rise  in  price  he  will 
probably  get.  Few  are  competent  to  advise  with  him 
except  the  men  of  his  locality  who  are  familiar  with  con- 
ditions. Possibly  the  county  agricultural  agent  can  be 
of  service  in  this  connection. 

The  two  simplest  ways  of  taking 
Methods  of  advantage  of  the  better  markets  in 

Reaching  the  the  seasons  of  lean  supply  are,  first, 
Most  Favorable  to  buy  half  finished  cattle  that  some 
Markets  other  shipper  has  put  on  the  market 

and  feed  them  for  thirty  to  sixty  days, 
depending  on  condition,  and,  second,  to  handle  the  animals 
by  cheap  maintenance  and  suitable  farm  equipment  to 
carry  over  into  this  favorable  time.  The  first  system  is 
best  adapted  to  feeders  who  live  close  to  a  big  livestock 
market.  At  almost  any  time  during  the  winter  the 
careful  buyer  can  go  on  the  market  and  watch  for  steers 
selling  at  prices  he  can  afford  to  consider  for  further 
feeding.  On  the  stockyards  markets  he  will  have  to 
compete  for  warmed-up  cattle  with  packer  and  speculator 
buyers  to  a  greater  extent  than  for  the  customary  type 
of  feeders,  but  he  will  find  certain  days  in  every  week 
(not  always  the  same  day  by  any  means),  when  there  are 
more  of  this  type  on  the  market  than  can  be  absorbed  and 
he  can  buy  at  suitable  prices.  He  may  find  it  to  his  ad- 
vantage to  do  this  twice  in  a  winter  rather  than  once,  in 
order  to  get  the  most  economical  use  of  his  feed.  He  will 
need  dry  bottomed  feedlots,  and  protection  from  the 
north  and  west  in  the  more  severe  sections  of  the  country, 
and  he  cannot  profitably  depend  on  the  steers  doing  much 
rustling  of  their  own,  but  must  have  facilities  for  bringing 
the  steers'  feed  to  them.  The  other  system  depends  on 
finishing  the  steers  on  grass  while  it  is  still  lush  and 
requires  silage  and  in  some  sections,  soiling  crops  (peas, 
oats,  vetch,  cane,  rye,  etc.)  as  supplements.  It  adapts 
itself  to  baby  beef  production  as  calves  of  one  spring  can 

Page  Fifty-six. 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

be  marketed  in  July  or  August  of  the  following  year. 
Sufficient  winter  shelter  will  be  required  for  these  calves 
to  keep  them  from  using  too  much  of  their  feed  to  provide 
heat.  This  system  of  feeding  and  finishing  will  do  well 
on  high  priced  land,  but  is  of  little  value  in  the  range  and 
semi-range  states  where  the  system  of  production  is  too 
extensive. 

The  relative  effect  of  supply  and 
The  Effect  of  demand  on  cattle  prices  on  the  hoof 
Supply  and  is  shown  in  the  chart  facing  page  56. 

Demand  on  The  two  upper  curves  are  not  on  the 

Hoof  Prices  same  scale,  one  square  on  the  curve 

for  market  receipts  representing  50,000 
animals  while  one  square  for  Armour's  purchases  repre- 
sents only  4,000  animals.  To  make  the  curves  directly 
comparable  the  heights  in  the  first  curve  should  be  multi- 
plied 12.5  times.  In  the  case  of  the  two  lower  curves, 
however,  the  general  parallelism  is  quite  marked.  The 
fluctuation  of  hoof  prices  is  not  as  great  as  that  in  dressed 
beef,  because  the  price  of  byproducts  does  not  vary  with 
the  price  of  beef  but  remains  relatively  constant.  On 
the  other  hand  it  will  be  observed  that  the  purchases  of 
Armour  and  Company  bear  only  an  indirect  relation  to 
the  price  of  dressed  beef.  In  general,  purchases  were  low 
when  prices  were  high  and  vice  versa,  but  there  are 
almost  as  many  exceptions  as  illustrations.  This  is  simply 
another  way  of  saying  that  prices  went  up  when  Armour 
and  Company  did  not  have  the  beef  to  supply,  while  with 
increased  supplies,  prices  dropped. 

If  the  points  along  the  dressed  beef  curve  and  the  live 
cattle  curve  are  compared  for  divergence  in  direction, 
periods  in  which  supply  overrode  demand  to  a  slight 
degree  will  be  noted.  In  September,  1917,  and  Septem- 
ber, 1918,  dressed  beef  prices  rose  while  hoof  prices 
dropped,  but  it  will  be  noted  that  in  each  case  the  number 
of  cattle  on  the  market  materially  increased — in  the  first 

Page  Fifty-seven 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

instance  65,000  head  or  27.6  percent  of  the  previous 
months'  receipts,  and  in  the  second  instance,  155,000 
head  or  64.6  percent.  On  the  other  hand,  in  November, 
10,18,  and  July  and  August,  iqiq,  dressed  beef  prices 
dropped  while  hoof  prices  rose.  This  was  unquestionably 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  purchases  of  the  months  preceding 
each  of  these  periods  were  extremely  light,  while  each 
preceded  a  period  when  the  beef  trade  normally  picks  up, 
in  the  first  case  for  Christmas,  and  in  the  second  for  the 
advent  of  cooler  weather. 


Page  Fifty-eight 


...i  ._^4 


-X 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 
PART  VIII 

The  Beef  Carcass 

Beef  is  a  food  which  contains  the 
The  Relative  highest  form  of  protein  for  human  con- 
Value  of  sumption,  in  the  most  palatable, 

Carcass  Cuts  stimulating  and  digestible  form.  It 
is  an  energy  producer,  a  muscle 
builder  and  supplies  mineral  salts  and  the  three 
principal  groups  of  vitamines.  There  is  no  substitute 
for  beef  in  the  diet  and,  combined  with  vegetables,  it  makes 
the  ideal  human  food  in  the  mixed  diet,  the  nutritive 
superiority  of  which  long  years  of  human  history  have 
demonstrated. 

There  are  eight  standard  wholesale  cuts  from  the  carcass ; 
the  round,  the  loin,  the  flank,  the  rib,  the  chuck,  the  plate 
and  the  shank,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  facing  page 
66,  and  the  suet  secured  from  the  free  fat  of  the  animal. 
There  is  a  pronounced  difference  in  the  value  of  different 
carcasses  and  in  the  value  of  the  cuts  produced  from 
different  parts  of  the  same  carcass.  The  quality  of  the 
carcass  is  dependent  on  the  relative  thickness  of  the  lean 
meat,  its  tenderness,  the  interspersion  of  fat  among  the 
muscle  fibers,  the  firmness  of  the  flesh,  the  freedom  from 
bruised  spots,  the  rich  redness  of  the  lean  meat,  and  the 
clear  white  of  the  sound  firm  fat.  Carcasses  poorly  pro- 
tected by  fat  cannot  stand  handling  in  the  fresh  meat 
trade,  while  carcasses  too  darkly  red  in  the  lean  and  too 
yellow  in  the  fat  indicate  age  or  finish  on  feeds  that  pro- 
duce a  more  perishable  carcass.  Two  very  important 
factors  affecting  the  value  of  the  carcass  are  the  lightness 
of  the  bone  and  the  relative  proportion  of  the  valuable 
cuts.  When  beeves  are  handled  in  bulk,  as  in  Armour  and 
Company's  Dressed  Beef  Department,  the  average  propor- 

Page  Fifty-nine 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

tion  of  the  different  cuts  is  usually  figured  for  convenience 
in  pricing,  but  if  the  carcasses  are  sold  to  the  retailer,  a 
slight  difference  in  the  proportion  of  valuable  cuts  is 
especially  important.  The  demand  as  reflected  from  the 
retailer  is  shown  by  the  different  price  per  pound  in  the 
following  table,  in  which  the  carcasses  are  considered  by 
the  cwt.,  thereby  showing  the  percentages  of  the  different 
cuts.  The  same  price  is  allowed  for  the  cuts  from  both 
carcasses  in  order  to  show  the  effect  of  the  more  valuable 
portions  on  the  profits.  In  practice  carcasses  showing  as 
great  differences  as  recorded  here  would  sell  for  different 
prices  per  pound. 

Steer  No.  i  Steer  No.  2 

Cut  Price  per  Ib.      Wt.  cut    Value        Wt.  cut        Value 

cwt.  cwt. 

Round $0.10  24       $2.40  22          $2.20 

Loin .28  18          5.04  16  4.48 

Flank 06  3.5         .21  4  .24 

Suet 10  3.5         .35  4  .40 

Rib 26  10         2.60  8  2.08 

Chuck 08  25          2.00  27  2.16 

Plate 045  13  .585  14  .63 

Shank 045  3  .135  5  .225 


Total $13.32  $12.415 

In  other  words,  on  each  hundred  pounds  bought  in  the 
proportions  listed  above,  steers  like  No.  i  would  be  worth 
qo>^  cents  more  than  steers  like  No.  2,  even  though  their 
meat  was  of  exactly  similar  grade.  On  a  65o-pound 
carcass,  this  difference  would  be  $5.88. 

It  is  very  seldom  that  two  steers 
Factors  in  showing  the  difference  in  proportion 

Carcass  Values  of  cuts  cited  in  the  foregoing  would 
produce  meat  of  similar  value,  but 
one  carcass  would  be  of  lesser  quality  than  the  other. 
During  the  winter  1921-22  good  beef  at  Chicago  prices 
sold  around  13  to  13^  cents  a  pound  wholesale,  while 
medium  quality  stuff  was  bringing  about  1 1  to  i  \Y2  cents. 

Page  Sixty 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

Two  carcasses  cutting  up  similar  to  those  discussed  in 

the  foregoing  paragraph  would  yield  wholesale  cuts  as 
follows: 

Steer  No.  i  Steer  No.  2 

Cut          Wt.  cut  Price  per  Value  Wt.  cut  Price  per     Value 

per  cwt.        lb.  per  cwt.       lb. 

Round 24             $0.10  $2.40  22          $0.08            $1.96 

Loin 18                 .28  5.04  16              .26              4.16 

Flank 3.5              .06  .21  4              .06                .24 

Suet 3.5              .10  .35  4              .10                .40 

Rib 10                .26  2.60  8             .24              i.Q2 

Chuck 25                 .08  2.00  27              .08              2.16 

Plate 13                 .045  .585  14              .045              .63 

Shank 3                 .045  .135  5              .045              .225 

Total..  $13.32  $11.695 

In  this  case  two  differences  of  importance  exist  between 
the  two  steers,  percentage  of  valuable  cuts  and  quality  of 
cuts.  The  difference  is  expressed  as  $1.62  per  hundred, 
or  $10.53  on  a  65o-pound  carcass.  Retail  stores  will 
take  the  carcass  of  the  first  steer  at  an  advanced  price 
because  the  retailer  can  make  more  from  it  himself,  and 
because  he  can  dispose  of  it  to  a  better  class  of  trade. 
The  next  paragraph  shows  how  these  differences  are 
reflected  to  the  producer. 

The  following  actual  cases  taken 
The  Relation  of  from  animals  killed  in  January,  1922, 
Carcass  Price  to  by  Armour  and  Company  show  how 
Hoof  Price  the  demand  for  different  classes  of 

meat  is  transformed  into  the  value  of 
steers  on  foot.  Only  animals  of  good  breeding  and 
finish  can  make  the  class  of  beef  represented  by  carcass 
No.  i,  and  the  majority  of  them  weigh  from  1 100 pounds 
up,  although  there  is  no  reason  why  animals  of  this 
quality  cannot  be  produced  in  the  cornbelt  at  950  pounds 
for  example,  when  fed  from  birth.  The  second  class  of 
steer  comes  more  usually  from  average  stock.  In  the 
particular  instances  here  quoted,  the  steer  purchased 
by  our  buyers  to  meet  the  12  cent  trade  demand  weighed 

Page  Sixty-one 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

1117  pounds,  while  the  other  weighed  908  pounds. 
The  data  for  steers  of  each  class  at  this  time  is  shown  in 
the  following  table: 

Steer  No.  i  Steer  No.  2 

Carcass  price $12.14  $10.12 

Carcass  weight 658  Ibs.  4QQ  Ibs. 

Value  carcass $79.86  $50.52 

Credits — Hides,  offal,  etc 9.49  8.04 

Killing  and  overhead 5.58  4.54 

Net  credits $83.77  $54-02 

Live  weight 1117  Ibs.  qo8  Ibs. 

Possible  hoof  price  per  cwt $  7.50  $  5.95 

The  actual  prices  paid  were  $7.55  and  $5.90.  From 
long  experience  the  Dressed  Beef  Department  can  figure 
what  it  can  afford  to  pay  for  steers  or  heifers  of  any  type 
and  weight  in  order  to  produce  a  particular  grade  or  class 
of  beef,  the  costs  being  known  in  terms  of  averages,  and 
the  corrected  costs  being  made  for  each  lot  in  terms  of 
the  actual  record  of  the  animals  purchased.  The  figures 
shown  in  the  preceding  table  represent  corrected  costs 
and  not  averages  used  for  preliminary  estimates.  Each 
morning  the  Armour  cattle  buyers  are  furnished  with  a 
statement  of  the  costs  of  the  beef  from  the  animals  they 
purchased  the  day  before,  as  well  as  the  actual  dressing 
percentage.  The  principal  factor  involved  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  buyer  is  the  ability  to  estimate  the  dressing 
percentage  closely,  and  after  years  of  experience  the  best 
buyers  become  unbelievably  accurate.  But  more  than 
an  estimate  of  the  dressing  quality  is  needed,  as  the  buyer 
must  be  able  to  recognize  the  type  of  animal  that  will 
produce  the  kind  of  beef  which  the  Dressed  Beef  De- 
partment needs  to  fill  its  orders  or  its  shortages. 


Page  Sixty-two 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 
PART  IX 

Market  Classes  of  Cattle 

Cattle  are  placed  in  classes  according 
How  Cattle  to  the  use  to  which  they  are  put,  while 

Are  Classified  they  are  graded  according  to  their 
merit  in  fulfilling  this  purpose.  The 
three  major  classes  are  beef  cattle,  butcher  stock,  and  feeders 
and  stackers.  Beef  cattle  produce  carcasses  suitable  for 
the  wholesale  trade,  of  the  better  grades,  Nos.  i  or  2, 
and  of  standard  quality.  Butcher  stock  produces  either 
an  inferior  grade  of  carcass,  or  else  only  partially  produces 
marketable  cuts.  Feeders  and  stockers  are  animals  that 
must  be  developed  further  before  being  slaughtered, 
feeders  being  ready  to  go  into  the  feed  lot  at  once,  and 
stockers  being  too  thin  or  too  small  to  fatten  until  they 
have  been  further  developed  on  cheap  feeds.  Each  of 
these  classes  has  a  certain  number  of  sub-classes,  although 
there  is  no  rigid  distinction  between  them,  the  daily  condi- 
tion of  supply  and  demand  materially  affecting  the  classi- 
fication. For  example  light-necked,  thin  stags  on  one 
day's  market  may  be  slaughtered  as  a  common  grade  of 
stag,  while  another  day  they  may  be  sent  back  to  the 
country  as  feeders,  depending  on  the  relative  need  for 
butcher  stock  or  feeders  The  principal  classes  and  sub- 
classes are  indicated  in  the  following  outline: 


Beef  Cattle 


Beef  Steers 
Yearling  Steers 
Yearling  Heifers 
Heavy  Heifers 
Stags 


Page  Sixty-three 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


Butcher  Stock 


Cows 


Bulls 


Veals 


Feeders  and  Stockers 


(Kosher 
I  Butcher 
1  Cutter 

Canner 

Butcher 

Bologna 

Selected 

Medium 
[Heavy 

Feeder  Steers 
Yearling  Steers 
Yearling  Heifers 
Feeder  Cows 
Feeder  Bulls 
Springer  Cows 
Springer  Heifers 
Stocker  Steers 
Stocker  Heifers 

Obviously  not   all   of  the   animals 
How  Cattle  that  are  placed  in  a  particular  class 

Are  Graded  on  a  given  day  are  equally  suited  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  that  class. 
Hence  they  are  graded  according  to  their  ability  to  realize 
these  requirements.  The  standard  grades  are  prime, 
choice,  good,  medium,  fair,  plain,  common  and  poor. 
Prime  animals  are  fully  finished  and  of  improved  type. 
Choice  animals  are  practically  as  good  in  type,  but  are 
not  so  perfectly  finished.  Good  animals  are  not  as 
desirable  as  prime,  either  in  condition  or  type.  Medium 
steers  are  practically  of  the  same  quality  as  good,  but  not 
their  equal  in  condition,  while  fair  steers  fall  below 
medium  in  quality,  type  and  condition.  Both  medium 
and  fair  steers  are  quite  numerous  on  the  market,  nearly 
50  percent  of  steers  falling  in  these  two  grades.  Plain 
steers  are  deficient  in  type  and  quality,  but  carry  some 
flesh,  while  common  steers  lack  flesh  to  a  greater  extent. 
Poor  steers  are  typical  of  their  name,  inferior  in  practically 
all  respects. 


Page  Sixty-Jour 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

Characteristics  of  The  following  general  description 
Different  Grades  of  each  of  the  grades  of  cattle  will  be 
and  Classes  of  found  applicable  on  the  average  to 
Beef  Cattle  and  cattle  on  the  spring  Chicago  markets 
Butcher  Stock  of  1922 : 

Grade  Weight         Condition  Type 

Prime  Beef  Steers.  ..  1350-1500         Ripe  Excellent 

Choice  Beef  Steers.  .  1250-1450        Good  Excellent 

Good  Beef  Steers  ...  1250-1450        Good  Good 

Medium  Beef  Steers .  1 200- 1 400        Average  Average 

Fair  Beef  Steers 1050-1 250        Average  Average 

Plain  Beef  Steers. . .  .  1000-1 1 50        Fair  Deficient  quality 

and  form 
Common  Beef  Steers   qoo- 1 050        Light  Few  signs  of  good 

breeding 
Poor  Beef  Steers 800-950        None  Very  inferior 

While  the  other  classes  and  sub-classes  vary  in  weights 
from  those  quoted  above,  the  general  statements  as  to 
type  and  condition  hold  good  throughout.  In  some  cases 
a  few  of  the  grades  are  omitted  or  new  grades  are  created 
to  meet  special  conditions  in  a  particular  class  of  stock. 
The  following  table  shows  the  grades  applied  to  the  other 
classes : 

Class  Grades 

Yearling  Steers Prime,  Choice,  Good,  Medium,  Fair,  Plain, 

Common. 

Yearling  Heifers Extra  Fancy,  Fancy,  Prime,  Choice,  Good, 

Medium,  Fair,  Plain,  Common. 

Heavy  Heifers Extra  Fancy,  Fancy,  Prime,  Choice,  Good, 

Medium,  Fair,  Plain,  Common. 

Stags Choice,    Good,    Medium,    Plain,    Common, 

Light,  Thin. 

[Kosher — Prime,  Choice,  Good. 
/->_..  j  Butcher — Choice,  Good,  Fair,  Plain. 

vs Cutter— Good,  Fair,  Plain. 

[Canner — Good,  Fair,  Plain,  Common,  Poor. 

{Butcher — Prime,    Choice,    Good,    Medium, 
Plain. 
Bologna— Choice,     Good,     Medium,     Plain, 
Common,  Light. 
[Selected — Prime,  Choice. 

Veals. j  Medium — Choice,  Good,  Fair,  Poor. 

[Heavy — Choice,  Good,  Fair,  Poor. 

Page  Sixty-five 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

Extra  fancy  heifers  are  females  showing  very  light  de- 
velopment in  the  essentially  feminine  characters;  that  is, 
they  are  trimmer  of  middle  and  smoother  through  the  hooks 
and  rump  than  usual,  being  prime  in  other  particulars. 
They  usually  are  very  well  bred  and  extremely  uniform. 
Fancy  heifers  are  similar  to  extra  fancy  except  that  they 
are  slightly  less  uniform,  and  usually  a  little  lighter. 

Kosher  cows  are  of  good  size,  and  well  enough  finished 
to  make  a  thick  forequarter  for  the  Jewish  trade.  The 
quarter  is  cut  off  behind  the  fifth  rib,  and  thickness  of 
meat  is  essential  in  order  to  produce  the  requirements. 

Light  thin  stags  are  animals  that  border  between 
feeders  and  canners.  Their  name  is  indicative  of  their 
type  and  quality. 

Prime  selected  veal  calves  weigh  from  1 35  to  165  pounds 
and  are  fat.  Medium  weight  veals  run  from  no  to  150 
pounds,  the  better  grades  being  heavier,  and  the  poor  to 
fair  veals  average  from  1 10  to  125  pounds.  Heavy  veals 
weigh  200  to  350  pounds,  the  plain  skim-milk  calves  in 
this  class  ranging  from  200  to  300  pounds.  Over  the 
year  the  number  of  heavy  veals  and  true  veals  runs  about 
equal  in  calves  slaughtered  for  interstate  trade. 

Feeders  and  stockers  are  graded  in  a  man- 
Grades  and  ner  similar  to  finished  cattle,  but  the  deter- 
Classes  of  mining  factors  are  based  on  their  ability  to 
Feeders  and  gain  rather  than  their  ability  to  kill.  Feed- 
Stockers  er  steers  have  the  following  classification : 

Grade  Weight  Breeding  Type 

Fancy  selected. .  i ooo 1 1 50    Nearly  pure  beef 

blood  Uniform,  beefy 

Choice 1000  High  in  beef  blood  Beefy 

Good QOO  One  or  two  crosses 

pure  bulls  Above  average 

Medium 850-  qoo    Mixed  Below  average 

Fair 800-  850    Some  cold    blood 

evident  Rougher,  plainer 

Page  Sixty-six 


Wholesale  cuts  of  the  beef  carcass. 


No.  3  round. 


No.  1  round. 

Note  the  fuller  shape  of  the  No.  1  round  and  the  better  marbling  of  fat  with  lean.     Also 
the  surface  of  the  No.  1  round  is  velvety  and  dry  as  compared  with  the  darker  wetter 
surface  of  the  No.  3  round. 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

Other  classes  of  feeders  and  stackers  grade  as  shown 
in  the  next  table,  their  differences  between  grades  approxi- 
mating that  shown  in  the  foregoing. 

Class  Grades  Weights 

Yearling  steers. .  .Choice,  good,  fair,  common 500-650 

Stocker  steers. ..  .Fancy   selected,    choice,    good,    fair, 

common  600-800 

Feeding  heifers .  .Yearlings,  choice,  good,  fair,  range  600-800 

Feeding  cows. .  .  .Choice,  good,  fair,  plain 650-850 

Springer  cows — Good,  fair  750-900 

Springer  heifers.  .Good,  fair  700-800 

Feeder  bulls Choice,  good,  fair  800-1 100 

In  January,  1922,  feeder  steers  brought  about  25  to 
50  cents  per  cwt.  more  in  the  corresponding  grades  than 
yearlings,  due  to  their  ability  to  finish  faster,  while  stack- 
ers sold  25  cents  to  a  dollar  lower  than  feeders.  Heifers  in 
corresponding  grades  brought  75  cents  more  than  cows, 
while  feeder  bulls  were  generally  listed  about  the  same  as 
feeder  cows. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  cattle  industry,  feeder  and 
stocker  values  were  set  by  subtracting  the  cost  of  feeding 
from  finished  cattle,  but  as  the  demand  for  dressed  beef 
raised  the  prices  of  unfinished  animals,  the  margin  on 
which  the  feeder  operates  no  longer  has  any  relation  to 
the  cost  of  finishing,  but  is  determined  by  the  value  of 
the  unfed  animal  for  killing  purposes.  The  feeder 
buyer  frequently  finds  competition  on  the  highest  type  of 
feeder  cattle  because  a  limited  sale  demand  exists  for  just 
such  cuts  as  the  raw  feeder  produces.  The  fact  that  a 
certain  percentage  of  this  type  of  animals  can  be  used 
for  beef,  particularly  in  the  face  of  market  scarcity,  has 
led  to  a  competition  with  feeder  buyers,  that  has  been 
difficult  for  them  to  understand.  Many  have  interpreted 
this  competition  to  mean  that  finished  cattle  are  no 
longer  desired,  but  this  is  by  no  means  true,  since  the 
market  can  handle  only  a  limited  portion  of  unfinished 
cattle  of  this  character. 

Page  Sixty-seven 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

PARTX 


Cattle  Types 


While  finished  cattle  are  classed 
How  Type  Is  and  graded  on  the  market  as  indicated 
Determined  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs,  there  are 
distinct  differences  in  type  between 
choice  feeders  and  choice  killing  steers.  The  factors  that 
determine  whether  an  animal  shall  be  classed  as  a  beef 
steer  and  graded  choice  include  high  dressing  percent, 
high  proportion  of  valuable  cuts,  ability  to  produce  a 
No.  i  carcass  and  a  size  suitable  to  produce  retail  cuts 
most  readily  marketable.  The  price  paid  for  live  animals 
is  based  on  these  points  entirely.  On  the  other  hand  when 
a  feeder  buys  a  steer  he  is  looking  for  the  points  that  will 
indicate  profitable  utilization  of  his  feed.  A  steer  of  this 
sort  has  a  large  rugged  frame,  a  strong  chest  and  constitu- 
tion, enough  depth  to  indicate  a  strong  feeding  capacity, 
and  a  loose,  mellow,  sappy  hide  that  provides  a  vigorous 
circulation  and  a  high  degree  of  health.  It  will  be  noted 
that  none  of  the  points  making  the  animal  profitable  as  a 
feeder  have  any  relation  to  the  efficiency  with  which  the 
steer  cuts  out,  hence  the  type  suitable  both  to  the  trade 
and  the  feeder  is  a  compromise.  This  is  the  type  which 
has  come  to  recognition  in  the  big  fat  stock  shows  of 
England  and  America,  and  in  its  ultimate  development 
provides  the  show  yard  champions.  The  usual  champion 
steer  is  fed  to  a  flesh  unprofitable  to  the  feeder  from  a 
market  standpoint,  since  the  final  gains  of  such  an  animal 
are  very  costly  and  there  is  ordinarily  too  much  fat  to 
permit  the  animal  to  be  cut  up  profitably  by  the  butcher. 
It  therefore  happens  that  many  times  steers  gaining 
high  honors  in  a  show  are  considered  less  valuable  by 
practical  feeders  and  sell  for  less  on  the  beef  markets  than 
animals  of  lower  show  rank. 

Page  Sixty-eight 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

Nevertheless  in  the  long  run  this 
Characteristics  compromise  type  of  steer  (see  page  4 1 ) 
of  the  Standard  is  the  one  that  gives  best  returns  at  all 
Types  of  Beef  stages  of  his  development.  Such  an 
Steer  animal  as  viewed  from  the  side  should 

be  straight  in  top  and  underline,  deep, 
low-set,  stylish  in  carriage,  symmetrical  in  all  parts,  and 
possessed  of  a  smooth,  thick,  meaty  appearance.  From 
the  rear  he  should  be  wide  throughout  and  even;  smooth 
through  the  shoulders,  hook  points  and  rump;  and 
deep  and  thick  in  thigh,  lower  round  and  twist.  From 
the  front  he  should  show  a  pronounced  breadth  from 
shoulder  top  down  through  the  breast,  his  neck  and 
shoulder  vein  should  be  plump  with  fat,  his  head  short, 
broad  and  well-dished,  and  his  legs  set  well  apart.  Such 
a  steer  will  carry  thick  cuts  in  the  valuable  parts  and  be 
proportionate  between  his  carcass  and  the  internal  organs 
that  provide  his  meat  making  machinery.  He  should  be 
thick,  smooth  and  mellow  to  the  touch  in  all  parts  of  his 
body,  and  as  refined  in  bone,  skin  and  hair  as  possible 
without  reducing  his  ruggedness  or  vigor.  Since  beef 
cattle  sell  by  the  pound  a  big  steer  at  a  given  age  is  always 
preferable  to  a  smaller  one  of  the  same  general  merit. 

The  fat  cattle  buyer  must  not  only 
Dressing  determine  what  kind  of  carcass  the 

Percent  animal  he  buys  will  produce,  but  he 

must  also  determine  what  the  steer 
will  yield,  in  terms  of  carcass  to  live  weight.  This  is 
known  as  the  dressing  percentage  and  depends  on  the 
condition,  the  freedom  from  paunchiness,  the  type  and 
the  quality.  Fat  steers  always  outdress  animals  of  less 
finish,  the  degree  of  their  condition  being  judged  in 
accurate  detail  by  the  filling  of  the  tongue  root,  brisket, 
shoulder  vein,  flank  and  twist,  in  addition  to  the  general 
covering  over  the  body.  The  fill  of  the  digestive  organs 
with  feed  and  water  is  as  important  as  the  condition. 
In  shipping,  steers  of  1200  pound  weight  frequently 

Page  Sixty-nine 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

shrink  40  to  60  pounds,  due  to  the  emptying  of  the  diges- 
tive tract,  which  is  3  to  5  percent  of  the  entire  weight 
of  the  animal.  A  difference  in  estimate  of  i  percent 
dress  on  a  1200  pound  steer  selling  at  q  cents  a  pound 
is  $1.08,  and  many  mistakes  of  that  sort  reduce  to  zero 
the  usefulness  of  a  buyer.  The  broad  thick  type  of  steer 
will  outdress  the  steer  of  wedge-shaped  dairy  type  even 
when  condition  and  fill  are  the  same,  by  3  to  5  percent, 
while  quality  in  hide,  head  and  bone  may  affect  the 
dressing  ratio  by  i  to  2  percent. 

The  average  run  of  steers  killed  by  Armour  and  Com- 
pany dress  about  53  percent,  good  to  choice  ranging 
from  56  to  59,  and  steers  of  extra  good  show  type,  going 
from  59  to  63.  The  champion  steer  at  the  1920  Fort 
Worth  show  was  killed  by  Armour  and  Company  and 
dressed  67.48  percent.  The  world's  record  is  on  a 
spayed  heifer  killed  at  the  Smithfield  Fat  Stock  Show  in 
London,  that  made  76.75  percent.  Fat  cows  dress  about 
56  per  cent,  and  canners  from  35  to  43  percent. 

Feeders  in  estimating  the  value  of  the  cattle  they  ship 
should  not  allow  dressing  percentage  to  overshadow  the 
value  of  quality  and  proper  shape  in  the  carcasses  their 
steers  produce.  In  final  analysis  the  price  of  a  load  of 
steers  is  directly  related  to  the  desirability  of  the  carcasses 
obtained,  and  quality,  size  and  shape  provide  the  original 
basis  on  which  the  buyer  must  make  his  estimates. 


Page  Seventy 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


PART  XI 

Marketing  Cattle 

Much  of  the  profit  that  may  have 
Preparations  for  been  acquired  during  the  feeding 
Shipping  operation  may  be  lost  when  the 

animals  are  sent  to  market.  Faulty 
shipping  methods  may  cause  such  a  great  difference  in 
the  loading  weight  of  the  steer  at  home  and  its  selling 
weight  at  the  market  that  the  feeder  may  actually  make 
or  break  on  this  margin.  This  "shrink"  is  caused  by  the 
failure  of  the  animal  to  eat  and  drink  the  normal  amount, 
and  by  scouring.  Long  hauls,  rough  handling,  improper 
feeding,  extreme  weather,  exhaustion  and  numerous  minor 
factors  affect  the  amount  of  shrink  and  nothing  will 
eliminate  it  entirely.  It  averages  about  4.0  percent  of 
the  animal's  weight.  Grass,  silage  and  pulp-fed  cattle 
shrink  more  than  grain  fed,  while  such  grades  as  canner 
cows  shrink  more  proportionately  than  finished  stock.  If 
about  two  days  before  shipping  a  less  washy  ration  is 
substituted  for  the  regular  ration,  the  shrink  may  not 
be  so  great,  although  if  the  change  is  too  sudden  the 
animal  may  be  upset.  On  the  other  hand,  too  dry  a 
ration  works  a  severe  detriment  to  the  selling  condition 
of  the  cattle.  To  withhold  water  before  shipping  and  to 
feed  salt  is  cruel  and  deceives  no  one  except  the  shipper 
himself.  A  normal  fill  is  always  accepted  but  both 
packer  buyers  and  feeder  buyers  can  easily  recognize 
animals  in  abnormal  condition. 

CA.-~~,V,,  Tne  following  suggestions  issued  by 

snipping  the    National    Livestock    Exchange 

Counsel  should  prove  helpful . 

Always   route  your  shipment  through  to  destination 
and  designate  each  road  handling  it. 

Page  Seventy-one 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

Always  carefully  insert  the  number  and  kind  of  each 
species  of  stock  loaded. 

Always  see  that  car  order  information  is  inserted  when 
the  car  furnished  differs  from  the  car  ordered. 

Always  insert  the  words  "ordinary  live  stock"  in  the 
description  of  stock  except  that  "chiefly  valuable  for 
breeding,  racing,  show  purposes  or  other  special  uses." 

Always  insert  in  the  proper  space  the  rate  which  you 
understand  is  to  be  applied.  If  the  rate  and  route  con- 
flict it  is  the  agent's  duty  so  to  inform  you. 

Always  give  specific  instructions  as  to  the  place  of 
feeding  enroute,  indicating  the  kind  and  quantity  of  feed 
to  be  furnished. 

Always  release  your  shipment  to  the  36-hour  limit 
unless,  in  your  opinion,  the  28-hour  limit  should  be 
observed. 

Always  declare  the  full  value  of  other  than  "ordinary 
live  stock,"  otherwise  you  cannot  recover  more  than  the 
declared  value  in  case  of  loss. 

Never  accept  a  contract  where  the  carrier's  agent  seeks 
to  limit  the  liability  of  the  carrier. 

Never  declare  the  value  of  "ordinary  live  stock."  The 
agent  cannot  lawfully  require  this  of  you. 

Never  pay  a  rate  on  "ordinary  live  stock"  dependent 
upon  the  declared  value.  If  it  has  been  paid  file  a  claim 
to  recover  the  overcharge. 

Never  let  the  railroad  agent  route  your  shipment 
against  your  own  preference.  The  law  gives  this  right 
to  you  exclusively. 

Never  send  an  attendant  unless  he  is  an  experienced 
livestock  man.  The  responsibilities  are  too  great  to 
risk  amateurs. 

Page  Seventy-two 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

Never  pay  loading  or  unloading  charges  at  public 
markets  nor  at  intermediate  feeding  stations,  except  when 
you  order  the  stock  fed  there.  The  law  imposes  upon  the 
carrier  the  duty  of  performing  this  service. 

Always  order  your  car  right  and  in  ample  time. 

Always  protect  your  rights  in  cases  where  cars  are 
substituted. 

Always  bed  your  car  properly. 

Always  mark  your  livestock  legibly  for  identification. 

Always  partition  different  kinds  of  livestock  and  tie 
dangerous  animals. 

Always  check  your  railroad  billing  weight  against  sale 
weights  to  avoid  overpayment. 

Always  pay  no  more  nor  no  less  than  the  full  lawful 
charge. 

The  center  of  consumption  of  beef 
Handling  Cattle  in  the  United  States  averages  approxi- 
at  the  Market  mately  noo  miles  distant  from  the 
center  of  production  in  terms  of  inter- 
state trade.  As  a  result  of  this,  a  complex  but  very 
efficient  marketing  system  has  been  developed.  Cattle 
shipped  to  central  markets  are  handled  by  the  trunk  rail- 
road, the  terminal  railroad  at  the  market,  the  stock  yards 
company  and  the  commission  firm  before  they  are  manu- 
factured into  meat  and  other  products,  while  the  meat 
passes  through  the  wholesale  markets,  either  directly 
into  the  hands  of  the  retailer,  or  through  the  intermediate 
hands  of  the  jobber.  Yet,  so  efficiently  is  this  done  in 
most  cases  that  the  retailer  can  purchase  meat  more 
cheaply  that  has  gone  through  all  of  these  hands  and  has 
traveled  all  of  these  miles,  than  he  can  butcher  the  animal 
and  sell  the  meat  therefrom  himself.  Furthermore,  by 
so  doing  he  is  insured  against  disease  and  can  have  a 
greater  variety  of  meats  to  suit  the  public  taste.  The 
terminal  railroad  receives  the  cars  from  the  main  line, 
spots  them  at  the  chutes  for  loading  and  unloading, 

Page  Seventy-three 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

returns  them  to  the  transfer  tracks  and  receives  its  return 
by  payment  of  so  much  per  car.  The  stock  yards  com- 
pany receives  the  cattle  from  the  railroad  at  the  unloading 
chute,  counts  them,  and  delivers  them  to  the  commission 
firm  at  their  pens.  This  company  does  all  the  weighing, 
counts  the  shipments  in  the  cars  and  records  the  entire 
transaction  from  unloading  to  selling.  For  this,  it 
receives  a  yardage  fee.  It  also  furnishes  the  feed  to  the 
shipper  for  which  he  must  pay.  The  commission  firm 
acts  as  the  selling  agent  for  the  shipper.  It  rents  blocks 
of  pens  from  the  yard  company  and  engages  in  selling 
or  buying  the  cattle  of  the  shipper.  In  order  to  do  this, 
the  commission  men  must  know  accurately,  both  cattle 
and  the  market,  and  follow  the  changes  from  day  to  day. 
Practically  no  shippers  are  frequent  enough  visitors  to 
the  market  to  be  able  to  place  as  accurate  a  value  on 
their  property  as  the  commission  salesman.  The  com- 
mission firm  is  the  final  link  in  the  establishment  of  a  cash 
market  since  it  provides  credit  for  each  individual  shipper, 
who  is  probably  unknown  to  the  stockyards  company  and 
prepares  for  him  the  bill  of  sale,  deducts  charges  and 
prepares  the  check  for  the  shipper  often  before  he  has 
received  his  own  money  from  the  buyer. 

Cattle  bought  by  Armour  and  Com- 
Slaughtering  pany  for  slaughter  are  driven  across 
Cattle  to  their  holding  pens.  From  here  they 

are  driven  up  a  long  chute  or  incline 
to  the  killing  beds  on  the  top  floor  of  the  plant.  Here 
they  pass  into  a  long  line  of  knocking  pens,  two  to  each 
pen,  and  are  there  dispatched  with  a  heavy  blow  of  the 
sledge.  They  are  then  hoisted  by  the  hind  legs  for 
sticking,  the  blood  being  caught  in  buckets  for  use  in 
further  manufacture  of  byproducts,  feed  and  fertilizer. 
The  heads  are  skinned  out,  washed  and  prepared  for  the 
Government  inspector.  The  carcass  of  each  individual 
animal  holds  its  place  in  rotation  throughout  the  entire 

Page  Seventy-four 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

operation,  all  parts  cut  from  it  being  kept  in  the  same 
order  until  the  Government  inspector  has  finally  passed 
it.  Armour  and  Company  is  very  proud  of  the  rigid  and 
efficient  inspecting  force  from  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  which  supervises  the  killing  and  meat  prepara- 
tion in  its  plants.  After  the  heads  have  been  removed 
the  cattle  are  moved  out  from  the  sticking  rail  and  are 
laid  down  on  the  floor  with  the  feet  in  the  air.  The  fore 
and  hind  legs  are  skinned  out  and  unjoin  ted  at  the  knee 
and  hock.  The  legs  are  sent  down  another  chute  to  be 
made  into  combs,  knife  handles  and  glue.  The  hide  is 
then  opened  down  the  center  of  the  belly  and  skinned  off 
the  sides  by  a  set  of  very  expert  workmen  who  with  one 
stroke  turn  back  the  hide  from  the  belly  to  the  floor.  The 
cattle  are  then  hooked  through  the  hocks  and  partially 
raised  from  the  floor,  the  middles  opened,  the  entrails 
removed,  placed  in  a  sterilized  moving  pan  and  inspected. 
While  this  is  going  on  other  men  skin  out  the  rump  and 
pull  the  hide  free  from  the  round.  Extreme  care  is  needed 
in  working  here  as  the  hide  from  the  rump  makes  the  very 
best  grade  of  leather,  and  any  cuts  cause  serious  loss.  The 
tails  are  skinned  out  and  started  on  the  road  to  the  soup 
factory.  The  carcass  is  then  raised  completely,  the  hide 
removed  from  the  back  and  "hide  droppers"  follow  to 
remove  the  skin  entirely  from  the  legs  and  shoulders. 
The  carcass  is  now  split  through  the  center  of  the  back 
bone  from  tail  to  neck  by  means  of  long  cleavers  and  so 
accurate  is  the  work  that  jagged  cuts  and  bone  splinters 
are  very  rare.  The  split  carcass  passes  on  a  moving 
trolley,  is  given  a  thorough  scrubbing  with  warm  water 
and  brushes,  wiped  dry  and  sent  white  and  clean  to  the 
last  Government  inspector.  If  no  disease  has  been  found 
in  any  part  of  the  animal  it  is  stamped,  "U.  S.  Inspected 
and  Passed,"  and  sent  to  the  coolers.  If  infection  is 
found  the  carcass  is  switched  onto  the  Government  rail 
and  a  thorough  examination  made.  Condemned  meat 
is  so  stamped  and  kept  under  Government  lock  until 

Page  Seventy-five 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

put  in  the  tank  for  inedible  grease  and  other  byproducts. 
U.  S.  inspected  meat  is  always  safe  meat.  The  Chicago 
packing  plant  of  Armour  and  Company  can  handle  180 
cattle  at  a  time,  the  entire  operation  from  knocking  to 
final  inspection  taking  about  an  hour.  The  beef  hangs 
in  a  temperature  of  about  34  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  at 
least  48  hours  and  is  then  quartered  or  cut  up  otherwise, 
loaded  into  the  refrigerator  car  and  sent  to  the  branch 
house  for  sale  to  the  retailer.  Fresh  beef  is  perishable 
and  its  handling  demands  a  continuous  attention  to  tem- 
perature and  a  maximum  of  speed  in  distribution. 


Page  Seventy-six 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


PART  XII 

Hides  and  Byproducts 

Hides  are  divided  into  two  great 
The  Market  subclasses:  packer  hides  and  coun- 
Classification  try  hides.  Packer  hides  are  taken  off 
of  Hides  uniformly,  are  cured  and  stored  under 

standard  conditions,  and  are  usually 
available  in  such  numbers  that  purchasers  may  secure 
several  thousand  of  one  grade  of  hide.  Country  hides, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  removed  according  to  the  idea  of 
each  individual  skinner,  are  often  imperfectly  cured  and 
stored,  always  show  greater  percentages  of  cuts  and  gashes, 
and  are  never  on  the  market  in  sufficiently  uniform  grades 
to  allow  narrow  selections  of  any  number  in  a  given  grade. 
Packer  hides  are  divided  into  subclasses  as  follows : 


Steers. 


Natives , 


Branded. 


Specifications 

Spready Minimum  width    6'6" 

Heavy Cured  weight .      .60  Ibs.  up 


Light Cured  weight . 

Extreme  Light Cured  weight . 

Butt  branded Cured  weight . 

Colorados  (side  branded)Cured  weight . 

Heavy  Texas Cured  weight . 

Light  Texas Cured  weight . 

Extreme  Light  Texas.  .  .Cured  weight. 


.60-60  Ibs. 
.15-50  Ibs. 

.  50  Ibs.  up 
.  50  Ibs.  up 
.60  Ibs.  up 
.  50-60  Ibs. 
.15-50  Ibs. 


Bulls. 


[Natives (Heavy Cured  weight .      .  55  Ibs.  up 

QJWS   J  \Light Cured  weight .      .15-5*  Ibs. 

IBranded Cured  weight ...  .15  Ibs.  up 

[Natives Cured  weight ...  .15  Ibs.  up 

[Branded Cured  weight ...  .25  Ibs.  up 

[Kips Cured  weight 15-15  Ibs. 

Calves^  Packer  calves   Cured  weight    Under  15  Ibs. 

ISlunks Sold  by  the  piece. 

The  average  weights  of  the  different  classes  of  hides 
follow:  Heavy  native  steers,  62-65  Ibs.;  light  natives, 
54-55  Ibs.;  extreme  light  natives,  40-45  Ibs.;  butt  branded 
60-65  Ibs.;  Colorados  (side  branded),  60-65  Ibs.;  heavy 
Texas,  63-65  Ibs.;  light  Texas,  55-56  Ibs.;  extreme  light 
Texas,  40-45  Ibs. ;  heavy  native  cows,  60*  Ibs. ;  light  native 

Page  Seventy-seven 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

cows,  42-48  Ibs. ;  branded  cows,  43-55  Ibs.;  native  bulls, 
70-85  Ibs.;  branded  bulls,  70-85  Ibs. 

Spready  native  steer  hides  are  measured  from  brisket 
to  brisket  as  the  hide  is  stretched  flat ;  that  is,  the  measure- 
ment corresponds  to  the  girth.  Spready  native  steer 
hides  are  used  for  automobile,  carriage  and  furniture 
leather.  Heavy  and  Light  Native  Steer  hides  are  used 
for  harness  and  belting  leather.  Extreme  Light  Native 
Steer  hides  are  used  for  upper  leathers  and  belting  leather. 
All  branded  steer  hides  are  used  for  sole  leather,  as  are 
branded  cows.  Heavy  Native  Cows  are  used  for  harness, 
automobile  and  furniture  leather,  while  Light  Native 
Cow  hides  are  used  for  case  and  bag  leather,  harness, 
upper  leather,  and  belting. 

There  are  many  sex  differences  which  develop  in  hides. 
Cow  hides  are  thicker  through  the  hindquarter  and  lighter 
in  the  forequarter,  while  bull  hides  are  quite  thin  behind 
and  very  thick  over  the  shoulders.  Steer  hides  are 
intermediate,  but  are  heavier  behind  than  a  bull's  hide, 
also  being  wider.  Hides  are  thicker  in  winter  than  in 
summer,  but  the  shrinkage  due  to  cure  is  greater  in 
summer  than  in  winter  hides.  Without  going  into  the 
salt,  summer  hides  will  stand  up  only  two  days  while 
winter  hides  will  stand  up  three  days.  With  the  large 
packers,  hides  are  graded  as  they  go  into  the  salt,  but 
with  the  smaller  houses  the  grading  is  done  as  the  hides 
come  out. 

While  Texas  hides  usually  make  the  heaviest  sole 
leather,  they  are  at  a  great  disadvantage  due  to  the  brands, 
which  -when  tanned  into  sole  leather  wear  out  very  rapidly. 
Cattle  without  horns  usually  throw  a  heavier  hide  in 
proportion  to  their  weight,  than  do  horned  cattle.  Bull 
hides  are  heavier  than  steer  hides,  and  steer  hides  are 
heavier  than  cow  hides.  Among  fat  cattle,  Herefords 
and  Aberdeen-Angus  throw  the  heaviest  hides,  with 
Holstein-Friesians  a  close  third.  It  costs  more  to  inspect 
native  hides  due  to  the  necessity  of  a  thorough  examina- 

Page  Seventy-eight 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


tion  for  brands,  which  are  admitted  to  exist  in  western 
and  southwestern  cattle. 

Kosher  killed  cattle,  which  run  from  10  to  25  percent 
of  heavy  hides,  are  subject  to  a  %  to  ^  cent  per  pound 
reduction  in  hide  sale  values,  due  to  the  cut  in  the  throat. 
Similarly,  cut  hides,  accidentally  damaged  in  skinning, 
are  reduced  about  a  cent  a  pound,  and  usually  include 
from  3  to  4  percent  of  the  total  production.  Grubby 
hides  are  subject  to  a  penalty  of  i  cent  a  pound,  in  case 
there  are  five  or  more  grub  holes  present. 
Country  hides  are  classified  as  follows: 

[Steers 60  Ibs.  up 

Heavy \ 

(Cows 60  Ibs.  up 

Buffs 45-6o  Ibs. 

Extremes ^5-45  Ibs. 

Bulls 

fSide  branded  country  packer 25  Ibs.  up 


Country 


Branded . 


Side  branded  country 25  Ibs.  up 


(Kips i?-*?  Ibs. 

Calf 8-15  Ibs. 

Calfskins . .  . -(Light  calf Under  8  Ibs. 

Deacons Under  7  Ibs. 

ISlunks Sold  by  the  piece 

Dry  hides  are  not  normally  an  important  factor  in  the 
American  hide  market.  South  American  hides  are 
marketed  dry  in  relatively  large  numbers,  due  to  the 
relative  permanence  of  the  hide  in  that  form,  but  the  cost 
of  gathering  for  market  in  the  United  States  is  such  that 
producers  today  get  practically  nothing  for  their  dry  hides. 
Fallen  hides  are  those  removed  from  dead  animals,  while 
glue  hides  are  those  unfit  for  tanning. 

Heavy  westerns 

Light  westerns 

Kips 


Dry  Hides 


Calf 
Fallen 
Glue  hides 
Dry  salt  hides 


Page  Seventy-nine 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

The  trend  of  hides  for  a  few  years  back  as  taken  from 
the  Chicago  Daily  Hide  and  Tallow  Bulletin  is  of  interest. 
The  prices  quoted  are  average  for  the  year  specified,  in 
cents : 


Packer  Hides 

Heavy 

Heavy 

Colo-      Heavy 

Light 

Native 

Year 

Native 

Texas 

rados      Native 

Native 

Bulls 

Steers 

Cows 

Cows 

1921  

$14-11 

$13-34 

$12.02      $12.64 

$11.69 

$  8.54 

I92O  

31.73 

17-47 

26.01        31.51 

29.10 

15-45 

1919  

39.76 

36.66 

34.71        37.71 

39-39 

31.06 

1918  

29.88 

17-95 

26.29        17.41 

22.70 

20.76 

1917  

3^.37 

30-99 

29.80        31.69 

29.40 

25.09 

1916  

16.43 

24-48 

23.53        14-97 

25.11 

21.29 

1915  

14-03 

21.52 

20.39        13-54 

22.96 

19.23 

1914  

19-78 

19.26 

18.25        19.00 

19-38 

15.91 

1913  

18.35 

18.02 

17.27        17.14 

17.26 

14.88 

1912  

17-71 

16.82 

15.76        16.48 

16.34 

14.05 

iqn  

14-91 

14.41 

13.37        13.90 

13.62 

12.24 

IQIO  

15.66 

15.00 

13.44        13.78 

13.07 

12.14 

1909  

16.05 

16.39 

15.33        I5-13 

14.81 

13.19 

1908  

13-43 

13-89 

12.26        11.42 

11.02 

IO.OO 

1907  

14-56 

14.09 

11.82        13.12 

12.72 

11.85 

iqo6  

15-43 

14.88 

13.66        14.96 

14.88 

12.  2O 

1905  

14-36 

14-45 

13.13        13.18 

I3.IO 

10.80 

1904  

11-77 

12.67 

10.84        10.62 

10.47 

9.12 

Average  

$10.57 

$19-57 

$18.22     $20.36 

$18.73 

$15.99 

Heavy 

Country  Hides 
Heavy              Calf 

Kip 

Year 

Steers 

Cows 

Skins 

Skins 

IQZI  

...$  9-40 

$  8.09 

$15-36 

$12.52 

I92O  

.  .  .   23.89 

20.  1  1 

37.6o 

29.91 

IQIQ  

...    3  1  .98 

19-97 

64.19 

48.96 

1918  

.  .  .    23.44 

21.12 

36.46 

13-63 

1917  

...   25.65 

13.15 

38.19 

33-45 

1916  

...   20.99 

2O.22 

33.98 

17.63 

1915  

.  .  .    19-51 

18.96 

11-39 

20.41 

I9U  

...    16.67 

16.46 

21.  II 

19-13 

1913  

...    15-35 

14.97 

19-43 

1  6.66 

1912  

...    14-33 

14.11 

19-35 

16.31 

igi  I           

.  .  .     12.  2O 

11.86 

I9IO  , 

...     12.15 

11.20 

16.31 

12.  II 

1909  

.  .  .     14.08 

13.18 

17-74 

13-78 

1908  

...    10.54 

9-34 

14-43 

9.91 

1907  

...    11.77 

10.99 

I5.8I 

11.41 

1906  

...    13-76 

13.44 

15.76 

13.73 

1905  

...    12.41 

11.90 

14-94 

12.50 

1904  

.  .  .      9-91 

9.41 

13-43 

10.8  1 

Average $16.56 


$15.48 


$23.08 


$18.49 


Page  Eighty 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

When  cattle  killing  first  became  a  cen- 
Byproducts  tralized  business  there  were  only  two 
standard  products  from  the  animal 
marketed,  the  beef  and  the  hide.  Due  to  the  utilization 
of  the  byproducts  in  the  modern  packing  plant,  both 
the  dressed  meat  and  the  hide  bring  less  than  the  animal 
costs  on  foot,  enabling  the  packer  to  shave  to  the  lowest 
degree,  the  margin  between  buying  and  selling  price  on 
the  cattle  he  buys  and  their  products.  A  representative 
condition  is  shown  in  the  following  steer,  purchased  by 
Armour  and  Company  in  January,  1922: 

Purchase  price,  1,117  lb.  steer $  83.77 

Selling  price  (wholesale)  658  lb.  carcass $  79.86 

Selling  price,  hide 7.06 

Killing  and  overhead  costs 5.58 

Credits  for  raw  byproducts 2.43 

Loss  on  steer .02 

Total $217.70  $217.70 

If  it  were  not  for  the  byproducts  the  loss  on  this  steer 
would  have  been  $2.45.  Armour  and  Company  do  not 
always  make  a  profit  per  head  on  their  cattle.  In  iqiq 
and  1920  an  actual  loss  per  animal  was  sustained,  while 
in  1 92 1  a  profit  of  $1.00  per  steer  was  made. 

The  possibility  of  converting  these  materials  which 
formerly  were  waste  products  is  based  entirely  on  volume. 
No  small  packing  plant  can  afford  to  organize  factories 
for  the  manufacture  of  these  materials,  but  must  put  in 
the  waste  pile  everything  except  what  can  be  most  easily 
assembled.  The  sources  of  the  byproducts  are  the  hide, 
the  blood,  the  waste  meat,  the  viscera,  the  glands  and  the 
bones.  From  the  hair  and  hide  come  all  kinds  of  leather, 
brushes,  binder  for  plaster,  felt,  padding,  hair  for  uphol- 
stering and  mattresses  and  glue.  From  the  sinews,  fats 
and  blood  come  bloodmeal,  filler  for  leather,  ammoniate 

Page  Eighty-one 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 

for  fertilizer,  meat  meal,  lubricating  oils,  oleomargarine, 
soap,  glue,  case  hardening  bone,  gelatine,  isinglass  and 
stearine.  From  the  glands  and  the  viscera  come  gold- 
beaters' skins,  perfume  bottle  caps,  tennis  strings,  clock 
cords,  drum  snares,  violin  strings,  surgical  ligatures  and 
Pharmaceuticals  (such  as  extract  of  thyroid,  pituitary 
liquid,  pineal  substance,  supraenals,  pancreatin,  adrena- 
lin, pepsin,  rennet,  thrombo-plastin,  etc.).  From  the 
bones  come  combs,  buttons,  hairpins,  umbrella  handles, 
napkin  rings,  tobacco  boxes,  buckles,  crochet  needles, 
knife  handles,  dice,  chess  men,  electrical  bushings,  washers, 
artificial  teeth,  bone  rings  for  nursing  bottles,  glue,  case 
hardening  bone,  gelatine,  fertilizers,  oils,  grease,  soap  and 
red  bone  marrow.  From  the  hoofs  and  horns  come 
various  manufactured  articles  of  horn,  such  as  inkwells, 
combs,  hair-brush  backs,  etc.,  and  neatsfoot  oil.  In  the 
larger  manufacturing  plants  not  a  single  element  of  what 
was  formerly  called  "packers'  waste"  is  discarded  as  of 
no  value. 


Page  Eighty-two 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


References 


BOOKS  ON  BEEF  CATTLE 
"Western  Live  Stock  Management," 

E.  L.  Potter  (MacMillan  &  Company). 
"Types  and  Classes  of  Live  Stock," 

H.  W.  Vaughan  (R.  S.  Adams  &  Company). 
"Live  Stock  Judging  and  Selection," 

R.  S.  Curtis  (Lea  &  Febiger). 
"Judging  Live  Stock," 

John  A.  Craig  (Kenyon  Printing  &  Mfg.  Co.,) 
"Principles  and  Practice  of  Judging  Live  Stock," 

Carl  W.  Gay  (MacMillan  &  Company). 
"Cattle  Breeds  and  Management," 

(Vinton  &  Company,  London). 
"Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals," 

C.  S.  Plumb  (Ginn  &  Company). 
"The  Breeds  of  Live  Stock," 

C.  W.  Gay  (MacMillan  &  Company). 
"Shorthorn  Cattle," 

A.  H.  Sanders  (Breeders'  Gazette). 
"The  Story  of  the  Herefords," 

A.  H.  Sanders  (Breeders'  Gazette). 
"History  of  Shorthorn  Cattle," 

MacDonald  &  Sinclair  (Vinton  &  Company,  London). 
"Fifty  Years  With  the  Shorthorns," 

Robert  Bruce  (Vinton  &  Company,  London) . 
"History  of  Hereford  Cattle," 

MacDonald  &  Sinclair  (Vinton  &  Company,  London). 
"History  of  Aberdeen- Angus  Cattle," 

MacDonald  &z  Sinclair  (Vinton  &  Company,  London). 
"Aberdeen- Angus  Cattle," 

A.  L.  Pulling  (Vinton  &  Company,  London). 

BOOKS  ON  FEEDS 
"Feeds  and  Feeding," 

Henry  &  Morrison  (The  Henry-Morrison  Co.,  Madison,  Wis.) 
"Productive  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals," 

F.  W.  Woll  (Lippincott). 
"The  Feeding  of  Animals," 

W.  H.  Jordan  (MacMillan  &. Company). 
"First  Principles  of  Feeding  Farm  Animals," 

C.  W.  Burkett  (Orange  Judd  Company). 
"Profitable  Stock  Feeding," 

H.  R.  Smith  (Howard  R.  Smith,  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago). 

Page  Eighty-three 


PROGRESSIVE     BEEF     CATTLE     RAISING 


"The  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals," 

O.  Kellner  (The  MacMillan  Company,  London). 

BOOKS  ON  BREEDING 
"The  Principles  of  Stock  Breeding," 

Jas.  Wilson  (Vinton  &  Company,  London). 
"The  Breeding  of  Animals," 

F.  B.  Mumford  (MacMillan  &  Company). 
"Breeding  Farm  Animals," 

F.  R.  Marshall  (Breeders'  Gazette). 
"The  Breeding  of  Farm  Animals," 

M.  W.  Harper  (Orange  Judd  Company). 
"Inbreeding  and  Outbreeding," 

East  &  Jones  (Lippincott). 
"Heredity  and  Eugenics," 

W.  E.  Castle  (Harvard  University  Press). 
"Genetics  in  Relation  to  Agriculture," 

Babcock  and  Clausen  (McGraw-Hill  Pub.  Co.) 

BOOKS  ON  DISEASES 
"Diseases  of  Cattle," 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
"Common  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals," 

R.  A.  Craig  (Lippincott). 
"Principles  of  Veterinary  Science," 

F.  B.  Hadley  (Saunders). 

Publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
available  for  free  distribution  by  the  Department : 
"Lespedeza  or  Japan  Clover,"  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  441. 
"Red  Clover,"  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  455. 
"Market  Hay,"  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  508. 
"Vetches,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  515. 

"Crimson  Clover,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  Nos.  550,  579  and  646. 
"Making  and  Feeding  of  Silage,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  578. 
"Beef  Production  in  the  South,"  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  580. 
"Economical  Cattle  Feeding,"  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  588. 
"Sudan  Grass,"  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  605. 
"Breeds  of  Beef  Cattle,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  612. 
"Cottonseed  Meal  for  Feeding,"  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  655. 
"Field  Peas,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  6qp. 

"Stock  Losses  from  Poisonous  Plants,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  720. 
"Natal  Grass,"  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  726. 
"Contagious  Abortion,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  7QO. 
"Production  of  Baby  Beef,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  81 1. 
"Home-made  Silos,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  855. 
"Dehorning  and  Castration,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  949. 
"Growing  Beef  on  the  Farm,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  1073. 

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